A GAME (on VM) - a game presented by the VM program that provides the user with the opportunity to actively participate in changing game situations using hints or instructions and video images. In I. the partners are a person or a group of people and a virtual machine. These can only be those I. that use a display screen to show situations, and a keyboard to convey a person’s reaction. I. are distinguished: spectacular (observation of the development of history and human intervention to organize turns in history), dynamic (hockey, billiards, etc.), guessing games, puzzles and exercises, visual (development of cognitive, artistic, professional and other abilities ), positional or logical (checkers, chess, etc.), evolutionary or educational (for example, “Life”) and construction or design games. I. are intended to develop a person’s skills in working with virtual reality, the ability to make decisions in various situations, for entertainment and recreation, and for training in professional work.

IDEAL MODEL[ideal model ] - a mental model built using images of objects, phenomena and processes based on analogy. Them. are divided into symbolic and visual-figurative, network, conceptual, informational, theoretical, algorithmic and systemic.

ID - a single letter character, or a sequence of letters, numbers, and possibly special characters, beginning with a letter character, used to form the names of objects and reserved (or standard) words in programming languages. I. is introduced in program texts by an explicit or implicit description that determines the scope of its action in which this I. is directly visible. I. serves as a name in a syntactically defined context. I. must be selected or assigned in accordance with the requirements of formal or natural languages; natural language greatly improves the readability of programs. In intellectual programming, I. is replaced by a term as a means of generalizing I.

USER ID- a code cipher (password) assigned to the user with which the registered user enters the system and which is used by the system to determine the level of his rights, as well as to register the fact of access and the nature of the work performed by him or the services provided to him.

IDENTIFICATION – the process of establishing the identity, equivalence of any objects on the basis of certain characteristics; I. sign - unambiguous assignment of a perceived sign to one specific class.

IDEOGRAM - a written sign that, unlike letters, does not denote the sound of any language, but a whole concept (mathematical sign, hieroglyph, emblem, etc.).

IDIOM - an indecomposable, indivisible and unchangeable combination of words of any language, the meaning of which does not consist of the meanings of the individual words that make it up.

HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION- a classification in which a higher-order division consists of non-overlapping lower-level divisions (linear classification).

Hierarchy - this is the arrangement of parts or elements of a whole in order from highest to lowest. Systems whose elements are in the relationships “is a variety”, “is part of” and other relationships of subordination are called hierarchical systems (systems with a hierarchical structure).

EXCESSIVE INFORMATION- information that exceeds in volume or meaning complete and sufficient information and is formally superfluous in the message, without I.i. the meaning or meaning of a message can be accurately and unambiguously established. I.i. used to ensure reliable data transmission.

REDUNDANCY - additional elements of any system or program that operate, execute, or are kept in reserve to improve the reliability of the system or program. I. is also called reservation.

EDITION - a set of printed works intended for distribution and printed by a printing house from one set and under one name. I. are: bibliographic, library, internal, dated, additional, daily, periodical, custom, illustrated, informational, corrected, cartographic, card, mass, multidisciplinary, multivolume, scientific and technical, periodical, review, industry, official, revised, repeated, subscription, full, profile, one-time, advertising, abstract, summary, abbreviated, reference, anniversary.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY - the process of sequential transmission, orally or in writing, of any thoughts, reasoning, descriptions, stories, signs, etc.

MEASUREMENT - the process of preliminary study of objects, phenomena or processes, aimed at obtaining quantitative characteristics, data related to the scope of the study and intended to establish the relationship between the measured quantity and a pre-selected unit of measurement, scale or standard.

IMAGE - a visual expression of the external characteristics of an object in another object, obtained either naturally (traces), or using visual means and techniques specifically (drawing, drawing, painting, photograph, etc.); I. - an image of some object, phenomenon or process. There are visible, graphic, negative, positive, hidden I. And - these are visions from nature or a dream (imaginary vision), theater or cinema scenes, a painting or drawing, graphics or drawing, geometric lines or graphs, signs or symbols, various mixtures of the above, which are a means of transmitting knowledge. Any information perceived by vision or formed by the imagination, fixed in any way on a medium, is I. They are intended for orienting a person in the world around him, recognizing and understanding objects, phenomena or processes, determining the characteristics or properties of images, classifying or qualifying images, accumulating images in that or another form (for example, the creation of libraries), the formation and application of the theory of information, obtaining new information or facts, the synthesis of new information. Processing information using a virtual machine to obtain new knowledge (the meaning of information or new information) is the main transformation of graphic information science .

INVENTION - the first stage of creating an object or process, during which ideas, techniques, ways and methods of generating initial data or knowledge for design, identifying a problem, task or question, and forming requirements for ways to resolve them are creatively developed.

INVENTION - a process of creative activity that ends with the solution of a new problem or task put forward by the needs of social production. I. is the invented object or process itself.

STUDYING - the process of acquiring knowledge, including such forms as research, assimilation of material in the learning process, etc.

ILLUSTRATION - a visual, reproduced in print graphic image of a drawing, drawing, photograph, etc., which is an addition to the text and helps to reveal its content.

Industrial society- a society determined by the level of industrial development and its technical base.

NAMED MATCHING- connection of an element of a composite value (aggregate) with a position in the aggregate using the naming of positions (in other words, key mapping).

NAMED COMPONENT- a compound name, including a prefix and a postfix, separated by a dot, and used to designate the components of the record, the discriminant, the object specified by the reference value, and the task inputs of task-type objects.

NAMED TYPE - a composite type of components named by different identifiers, having, generally speaking, different types, and several or none of the components are called discriminants. An object of a named type is called a record. A record is characterized by the number of fields, the type of each field, and the possible variations. Values ​​of a named type are called record aggregates. The component name is a compound name containing the name of the field, which can be of a newly named type.

NAME - a means of denoting a concept described explicitly or implicitly. I. can be proper, for example constants, and non-proper, for example simple names, components, segments, attributes. Some I. include a prefix and a postfix, separated by a period character and called extended names. The subject of information can be a thing, property, relationship, phenomenon or process. Concept indicates meaning. I. is used to refer to the meaning of the concept represented by the term.

INVARIANT - an expression that remains unchanged under a certain transformation of the variables associated with this expression.

INDEX - a conventional sign or a combination of them, denoting a certain concept and used to record, for example, classification results. I. is a list of terms or names (see INDEXING). I. are: alphabetical, letter, auxiliary, decimal, catalog, basic, simple, arrangement, complex, mixed, composite. I. is also a way of specifying the location of the position of a given element, especially a composite one.

INDEXING - a mechanism that provides access to an array element by reference to the array and to one or more expressions whose values ​​determine the position of this element in the array. Index is also a system or set of indices adopted for indexing and corresponding to one or another chosen classification.

INDEXING [ indexing] - the process of selecting or compiling a particular index and assigning it to the corresponding text, document, etc., performed on the basis of classification. I. can be: automatic, alphabetic, deep, detailed, coordinate, multi-aspect, permutational, free, digital.

INDEXED COMPONENT- a name consisting of a prefix and a set of indices and denoting a component of the data array. In other programming languages ​​I.k. called a variable with indexes pointing to one element of the array.

INDEXED TYPE- a composite type of components of the same type (arrays). I.t. value called an array aggregate. The component name has one or more index values ​​belonging to discrete types. An object of an indexed type is called an array. An array is characterized by the number of indexes, the type and position of each index, the upper and lower bounds of each index, and the type of values ​​of the array components.

INDUCTIVE SYSTEM- a set of rules for constructing inferences from facts to a hypothesis (general statement). The basis of I.s. constitutes the method of induction.

INDUCTION - a research method consisting in the transition from knowledge of particular provisions to knowledge of general provisions. In general, I. is a form of thinking in which thought is directed to some general rule, a general position inherent in all individual objects.

KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING- a scientific discipline that studies the problems of constructing intelligent (in particular, expert) systems, the formation of methods and means for ensuring the design and development and maintenance of such systems, as well as the creation, maintenance, debugging and maintenance of knowledge.

ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY- a branch of psychology that studies the psychological characteristics of a person’s work activity in order to create optimal working conditions, for example in the VM.

ENGINEERING PROGRAMMING- the application of natural and mathematical sciences through which the potential capabilities of hardware and software become useful to humans. I.p. involves private, standard or general programming technology, economic and administrative organization.

INTEGRATION (in a system or systems) - restoration and (or) improvement of the quality level of relationships between elements of the system, as well as the process of creating a single system from several dissimilar systems, as well as the process of creating a single system from several dissimilar systems, with the aim of eliminating (to the technically necessary minimum ) functional and structural redundancy and increasing overall operating efficiency.

INTERACTIVE MODE, DIALOGUE MODE- a method of interaction between a user or operator and a computer, in which there is a direct and two-way exchange of information, commands or instructions between a person and a computer.

INTERNET - a global computer network that unites many regional, departmental, private and other information networks with communication channels and uniform rules for all its participants for organizing the use and reception/transmission of data, defined by the TCP/IP protocol.

USER INTERFACE, USER INTERFACE- 1. A set of software that ensures user interaction with the system; - 2. Means of communication between the system and users.

INTRANET - a distributed departmental computer network (including firms, corporations, organizations, enterprises, etc.), designed to provide its employees with teleaccess to corporate information resources and using software products and Internet technologies.

INFORMATION - organizational socio-economic and scientific-technical process of creating optimal conditions for meeting information needs and realizing the rights of citizens, government bodies, local governments, organizations, public associations based on the formation and use of information resources.

INFORMATION SECURITY- the state of security of the information environment of society, ensuring its formation, use and development in the interests of citizens, organizations, and the state.

INFORMATION SYSTEM- an organizationally ordered set of documents (arrays of documents) and information technologies, including the use of computer technology and communications that implement information processes;

INFORMATION COMPATIBILITY- the ability of two or more computers or systems to adequately perceive identically presented data. Part of information compatibility, as well as a means of ensuring it, is the compatibility of data presentation formats.

INFORMATION SPHERE (ENVIRONMENT)- the sphere of activity of subjects related to the creation, transformation and consumption of information.

INFORMATION SUPPORT (IS)- 1. A set of unified system of classification and coding of information, unified documentation systems and data arrays used in an automated system. - 2. Providing the user with the information he needs.

A set of linguistic, algorithmic and technical means designed for storing, searching and issuing the necessary information.

INFORMATION PRODUCTS (PRODUCTS)- documented information prepared in accordance with user needs and intended or used to satisfy user needs.

INFORMATION PROCESSES- processes of collecting, processing, accumulating, storing, searching and distributing information.

INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES- individual documents and individual arrays of documents, documents and arrays of documents in information systems (libraries, archives, funds, data banks, other information systems).

INFORMATION SERVICES- actions of subjects (owners and possessors) to provide users with information products.

INFORMATION SEARCH- methods and procedures for detecting information in a data array.

INITIALIZATION - the operation of assigning initial values ​​to changing quantities (variables) before starting calculations (using this value), which should ensure normal execution of the program.

ENCAPSULATION - combining programs and data for execution; with I., the program code can be placed among the data and initialized when accessing this data; initialization of program code may lead to the use of data placed in the body of this program.

INSTALLATION - the procedure for installing software or a program on a VM.

INSTRUCTIONS - 1. A document that provides instructions for the implementation of any processes, actions or work. I. is a prescription for performing manual or automated work leading to the receipt of final products according to the original instructions; 2. VM processor command.

Information Technology Toolkit- a set of software products, the use of which allows you to achieve the goal set by the user

INSTRUMENT PANEL (STITCH)– a part of the display screen (line) intended to play the role of a control element, located, as a rule, at the top of the window. On I.p. There are buttons that correspond to specific user commands. The selection of such buttons is carried out only by pressing the left mouse button.

TOOL(in programming) - a software, hardware or software-hardware tool that provides automation of the design, development and maintenance of programs. Usually I.s. is intended to automate some work, a set of works, or a stage of the technological cycle for the production of a software product. I.s. include editors, compilers, translators, assemblers, loaders, debuggers and other systems.

INSTRUMENTAL COMPLEX(for intelligent systems) - a hardware and software system designed to form the structures of knowledge bases and intelligent systems, generate an intelligent application system and for representing, transmitting, processing, debugging and storing knowledge.

Software tools. - Programs used during the development, adjustment or development of other programs: editors, debuggers, auxiliary system programs, graphics packages, etc. Their purpose is similar to programming systems.

INTELLIGENT PROGRAMMING TOOLKIT- a software or hardware-software tool (a tool and a tool complex for intelligent programming) designed for input, processing, saving, debugging and outputting results, program synthesis of such objects as knowledge, lexicons and queries, as well as for initializing and configuring an intelligent system .

Integrated circuit. - The implementation of an electronic circuit that performs a certain function in the form of a single semiconductor crystal in which all the components necessary to implement this function are manufactured.

INTEGRATOR - a functional analog block of an analog VM that continuously carries out the operation of integrating a certain value. There are I. servo, with parallel or sequential transfer, partially pulsed, etc. Mechanical I. is called integraf.

INTEGRATION OF SCIENCE- a trend in the development of science, manifested in the merging of various scientific directions and industries and in the penetration of methods of one branch of knowledge into other fields. Thus, as a result, the penetration of computer science into other sciences (in the process of integration) gives rise to new computer sciences, for example, computer science of mathematics, computer science of biology, computer science of sports, etc.

Integrated software packages. - Software packages that perform a number of functions for which specialized programs were previously created - in particular, text editors, spreadsheets, database management systems, graphing and diagramming programs.

INTELLIGENCE (in computer science) - a measure of a system's ability to logically derive a solution to a problem based on knowledge, as well as to detect the consistency, independence and completeness of knowledge.

VM INTELLIGENCE- the process of invention, design, development and implementation of intelligent VM user interface tools. I.VM can be assessed in the following categories: 1. Visibility or external intelligence, 2. Meaningfulness or internal intelligence (equipped with languages), 3. Conceptuality or the foundations of the complex, 4. Availability of a database for the interconnection, integrity and security of data, 5. Logical inference for constructing answers to user requests, 6. Software for customization, adaptability, 7. System - the social life of the complex. The average expert rating indicates the intelligence of the program and the VM on which it operates.

INTELLIGENT DATABASE- a database that contains data connection logic that allows you to generate and select interrelated data and data sets. The concept of a database blurs the line between databases and knowledge.

INTELLIGENT DATA MODEL- separated logic, control mechanisms, restrictions that should be applied when accessing data regardless of specific applications and which can be associated with the records themselves or associations. I.m.d. used to verify the correctness of data that meets specified requirements.

INTELLIGENT SYSTEM(Intelligence) - a human-machine or object-machine software system that logically derives a solution to a logical equation that formally represents the knowledge and requests of the user or messages from the environment surrounding the system in accordance with the knowledge representation language, lexicon, databases and answers to questions of the system for the user in connection with the clarification of knowledge. An algorithm for solving a problem is built or generated automatically based on the logical conclusion (proof) of a query using a knowledge base entered into the VM memory. The mathematical definition of I. is a program for the logical derivation of a user’s request in propositional calculus or in predicate calculus, specified by the user’s axioms and the rules of calculus that constitute the knowledge base (axioms of the problem domain), queries are the original statement or theorem-statement in calculus extended by the axioms of the problem domain. areas.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY- products of creative work, the distribution and use of which are regulated by legal norms that establish precise sanctions for the owner on the rights to use, copy and distribute these products. K I.s. include algorithms, databases and knowledge, programs, software packages, etc.

INTELLIGENT SOFTWARE- a set of data and knowledge that allows one to logically resolve a specific class of problems.

INTELLIGENT PROGRAMMING- a new direction in computer science, based on the input into the VM of knowledge about the subject and problem areas (represented by logical dependencies, mainly in natural language) and the logical conclusion of the answer to user requests (as a result of solving a logical equation), also expressed by logical dependencies. Toolkit I.p. are intelligent systems or, in particular, expert systems.

INTELLIGENT SUBSCRIBER TERMINAL- a terminal that contains software for performing various service operations. I.a.t. focused on the use of natural language tools for communication between humans and machines.

SMART INTERFACE- an auxiliary system of software and hardware that ensures the end user can use VM programs when solving problems of his professional activity without the help of programmers or with little help from a knowledge expert. I.i. performs the functions of setting tasks, creating an information environment and presenting data or programs.

INTERACTIVE MACHINE GRAPHICS- dynamic control of a person through a machine graphics terminal for pattern recognition, drawing graphs and pictures, creating maps, automating drawing and design work, modeling, animation, process management, for art and advertising.

INTERVIEWING- an oral dialogue between a researcher and a developer, customer or consumer in order to collect information about a certain product to evaluate development tools, financing and consumer qualities. For statistical processing of the results of analysis, a VM is used.

INTERPRETER - VM software that executes a program of some (possibly another) VM command by command in the sequence prescribed by this program, generally speaking, another VM. Each command is executed according to a program that simulates the execution of this command.

INTERPRETATION - comparison of all the original concepts and relationships of some mathematical objects and the relationships between them. The ultimate goal of information is to specify the meaning of the formulas of a given formalized language. In this case, every formula of a given language is compared according to certain rules with another formula of another language and it is considered that both formulas mean the same thing.

INTERPRETING SYSTEM- object VM software that performs the operations of another (interpreted) machine program written in a formal language, without first generating the object VM program code. An interpreted VM program operation is most often implemented by calling an object VM routine from the library.

Interface - means that ensure the relationship between objects of the “human-computer” system. There are: hardware interface - interaction between computer devices; software interface - interaction (compatibility) of programs with each other, as well as software and information resources; hardware-software interface - interaction between computer hardware and software; user interface - human-computer interaction.

INTUITIONIST LOGIC- a field of mathematical logic that recognizes potentially realizable infinite sets and covers research on the construction of algorithms and the study of their properties.

INTUITION - the ability of a person to find the right solution without a clear understanding of the process as a result of which this solution was obtained. I. are distinguished between sensory, associative, search, scientific, conceptual, acting and intellectual.

INTUITIVE KNOWING- direct knowledge of the meaning of concepts or facts, the acquisition of which is based on intuition.

INFORMATIZATION OF SOCIETYsocio-economic and scientific-technical process of creating optimal conditions to meet the information needs of citizens, government bodies, local government organizations, public associations based on the formation and use of information resources.

INFORMATIONALIST - a specialist engaged in implementation or research work in the field of computer science. I. in a production environment is called a systems programmer or knowledge engineer. The main responsibilities of the second are to obtain knowledge about knowledge, look for forms of representation, transmission and display of knowledge, develop methods and programs for storing and replenishing knowledge in the memory of the VM, as well as methods for protecting knowledge from destruction.

Computer science - a science that studies the patterns of processes of transmission, storage and processing of information in nature, society, technology, as well as methods of automating these processes using a computer.

INFORMATIC LOGIC- logical foundations of computer science, designed to build a calculus for solving logical equations to search for the desired object (new knowledge). See also logic of computer science.

INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE - a set of various means of searching, transmitting, providing and processing information or knowledge and synthesizing new knowledge, which seem to be an important resource of society.

INFORMATION MODEL- representation of an object model by means of one of the types of knowledge: descriptively (texts), semantically (networks), conceptually (conceptually), encoded (codes), axiomatically (formulas with truth values), procedurally (algorithmically) or systematically (intelligent systems).

Information - information about the world around us; information for a person is the knowledge that he receives from various sources. A message received by a person can add to his knowledge if the information it contains is understandable and new to the person.

INFORMATION NEED- a property of an individual, team or any system that reflects the need to obtain information corresponding to the nature of the actions or work performed.

INFORMATION SYSTEM- hardware and software system for storing and issuing data or messages upon request. Main types of I.s. - reference, search, advertising, etc.

INFORMATION SCHEME- graph of data flows in the program; The nodes of this graph are associated with actions, and the arcs are associated with data transfer. I.s. most often combined with a block diagram of interaction between control modules. I.s. is an important means of representing streaming (functional) computing systems.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY- a set of methods for creating, processing and storing information implemented in the process of information production. I.t. designed to identify patterns of the most efficient and economical information processing processes. I.t. covers all means of storing and transmitting knowledge representations, computer technology, communications technology, television and radio broadcasting.

INFORMATION ECONOMY- a set of production relations in a given socio-economic formation in information production.

INFORMATION SUPPORT- documents and programs containing standard procedures, standard solutions, execution rules, data for solving a certain class of problems.

INFORMATION SOCIETY- a society of the future, which is influenced by information science and computer technology, minimizing contradictions in society and increasing the intensity of use of information from a wide variety of sources (libraries, radio, computer, etc.).

INFORMATION FIELD- one of the three fields (gravitational, energy and information) in which life on Earth occurs, influencing flows of information and knowledge, for example, on human senses through the signaling system.

INFORMATION PRODUCTION- the process of creating and disseminating information or its representations. As in material production, two sides of the production method can be distinguished: productive information forces - people, participants in information production, information production relations - a set of information relations between people in the process of production, distribution and consumption of information.

INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SYSTEM(IPS) - a hardware and software system designed to store and accumulate data in a database, quickly search for information in accordance with user requests and issue messages to the user based on the search results.

Information for a person- knowledge that he receives from various sources. A message received by a person can add to his knowledge if the information it contains is understandable and new to the person.

Information culture- the ability to purposefully work with information and use computer information technology, modern technical means and methods to obtain, process and transmit it.

Information model -a set of information about an object or process.

Information channels- human sense organs as well as telephone, radio, television, computer. With their power, people exchange information.

Executor - a person, group of people, animal or technical device capable of executing given commands. There are informal and formal performers. An informal executor can perform the same command in different ways. A formal performer always performs the same command in the same way. For each formal performer, you can specify the range of tasks to be solved, the environment, the command system, the failure system and operating modes.

A source of information- the one who transmits information.

INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES- means, values, reserves, opportunities, sources of funds intended for storing, processing, distributing and consuming information in order to obtain new knowledge.

STATE INFORMATION RESOURCES- a direct product of information production by the most qualified and creatively active part of the country’s working population. The basis of I.r.g. consist of: research and design developments that allow the creation of high-tech products, patents, licenses, technical and scientific ideas, inventions, scientific publications, conference materials, etc. Active I.r.g. is information entered, processed and stored in the VM in the form of knowledge representation.

INFORMATION EXPLOSION- a rapid increase in the total amount of information (boom) created in any industry, field of activity or society as a whole at a certain stage of development, as well as in the memory of a computer with memory limitations or with a poor coding method.

INFORMATION CRISIS- a transitional, unstable state of any system associated with a serious disruption in the organization of information flows and the implementation of information processes.

INFORMATION FLOW [ information flow] - information in an orderly movement along given directions with fixation of the starting, intermediate and ending points.

INFORMATION AUTHORITY- an institution or unit that constantly carries out information work. There are the following acting positions: center, institute, bureau, department; head, sectoral, specialized, territorial, as well as technical, scientific or scientific-technical.

INFORMATION - a set of facts, phenomena or events that are of interest and subject to registration and processing. I. - the meaning of data with certain conventions adopted for the process of perception. I. refers to knowledge communicated by someone or obtained as a result of research, analysis, or teaching. The physical meaning of information is the result of the interaction of material objects, transmitted through a material channel. I. is the basic concept of cybernetics. I. are: bibliographic, secondary, incoming, selective, outgoing, graphic, documentary, redundant, true, original, false, scientific, incomplete, review, operational, industry, patent, primary, written, political, complete, user, production, industrial, relevant, retrospective, abstract, semantic, signaling, social, current, thematic, technical, oral, factual, phonetic, targeted, digital, economic, elementary.

INFORMING - the process of bringing information or information to the interested consumer.

EXCEPTION - designation of an error situation that may occur during program execution. Raising an exception involves stopping normal program execution by signaling the presence of an error. The I. handler is a backup part of the program, executed only when the corresponding I. is excited as a reaction to this I.

AN EXCEPTIONAL SITUATION- see exception.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE(AI) is a section or discipline of computer science that studies methods, methods and techniques for modeling and reproducing intelligent human activity with the help of a computer associated with solving a problem. The fundamental goals of AI are the study of methods for representing knowledge, describing facts, patterns, studying methods for processing data presented in natural language, studying methods for understanding and reproducing speech and purposeful behavior of a person or device. AI is implemented in intelligent (expert) systems, inference programs, robotics and in the construction of knowledge bases.

USING KNOWLEDGE- a means of reflecting known knowledge that can be used usefully in industry, science, culture and in everyday life.

TEST OF KNOWLEDGE- the process of establishing compliance of knowledge from the database with the initial requirements and documents for creating a knowledge base by running test tasks.

TESTING THE PROGRAM- the process of establishing compliance of a VM program with specified requirements and program documents by running test tasks.

STUDY - the study of objects and phenomena, processes of the material, energy or information world, aimed at identifying their inherent patterns and carried out by certain methods. Often the concept of information is expressed by the term “study” - it is broader. I. There are laboratory, review, scientific, conceptual, useful, applied, theoretical, experimental.

TRUE - correct and adequate reflection of objects, phenomena or processes of reality by a cognizing subject or VM, reproducing them as they exist outside and independently of consciousness; objective content of human cognition. I. contains an element of absolute knowledge. The criterion of reliability of I. is practice. I. is always specific.

TRUTH OF KNOWLEDGE- correspondence of knowledge to objective reality; correct reflection of the real world in scientific concepts, judgments, conclusions, theories, facts, rules, etc.

SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE - any system that uses means of storing and processing information. Such systems are a sign, language, writing, book, theory, algorithm, VM.

INITIAL DATA - data for forming or solving a problem. Development of I.d. precedes the development of algorithms.

CALCULUS - a set of language of correctly constructed formulas, axioms and rules of inference, presented in a certain language of formulas; the basis of inductive, deductive or computer systems. There are I. statements, open predicates, first-order predicates, higher-order predicates, etc.

COUNTING STATEMENTS- a way of formalizing logical reasoning, which takes into account only the logical structure of statements.

FRAME - 1. A single message of a certain standardized format, transmitted over channels. 2. Information in the form of a single whole, presented on the screen (media) of the terminal as a result of an information search or message generation.

CALCULATOR - portable VM for low-capacity calculations. Printers can be simple, engineered, programmable, equipped with small printing devices, and with removable programs.

CHANNEL - a device (for example, computer technology) designed to transfer data between two other devices. Communication can be subscriber, analog, discrete, information, trunk, multiplex, machine, reverse, data transmission, direct, communication, selector, physical, logical, etc.

COMMUNICATION CHANNEL (DATA TRANSFER)- part of the network that connects each pair of its terminal terminals and consists of technical means of transmitting and receiving data, including a communication line, as well as software and protocols.

PENCIL (light) - a device for identifying data on the display screen in dialogue mode with a VM. K. is also called a light pen.

CARD INDEX - a collection of cards arranged and systematized in any specific order and used for reference work. K. is not connected to the document fund; it is a manual information retrieval system. K. can be bibliographic, vertical, rotating, auxiliary, journal, titles, translations, flat, suspended, abstract, summary, special, reference, factual, elevator. The order of the cards is determined by alphabet, topics, author names, etc.

CATALOG - a collection of data sets or brief descriptions used by a control or system program to determine the location of an object and available for use for reference and other purposes. K. can be author's, alphabetical, auxiliary, newspapers, general, geographical, magazines, publications, publishing, card, machine, numbering, general, sectoral, cross, printed, auxiliary, subject, working, summary, systematic, with edge perforation, special , trade, corporate, chronological, central, reader.

CATALOGING - the process of preparing and compiling a catalog of descriptions; distribution and systematization of these descriptions.

KILOBYTE (KB) - the same as a kilobyte, equal to 1024 bytes.

QUANTIZATION - 1. One of the ways to share VM resources, time between two or more resource consumers. K. prevents the possibility of long-term downtime of consumers due to lack of resources. K. also involves the conversion of analogue values ​​into discrete ones. 2. The process of forming a discrete representation of a quantitative characteristic, which had the form of a continuous value.

QUANTIZATION - 1. operation of converting data from continuous to discrete form; - 2. dividing data into subgroups (classes), for example, in digital image processing.

QUANTITOR - the general name of logical operations that, based on a predicate, construct a statement that characterizes the domain of truth of this predicate. Universality means that the domain of truth of the predicate coincides with the domain of the variable's value. K. existence means that the domain of truth of the predicate is non-empty. K. are widely used in natural language: K. universality is expressed by the words for, for everyone, etc., K. existence - by the words exist, find, etc.

CYBERNETICS - the science of general laws of control in nature, the animal world, society and in artificially created systems based on information feedback. Computing is based on mathematics, automata theory, operations research theory, optimal control theory, algorithm theory, information theory, and others.

CYBERNETIC KNOWLEDGE- knowledge about systems, represented by sets of interconnected symbolic objects (arrays, tables, graphs, pictures, etc.).

KILOBYTE (KB) A unit of data storage size. KB = 1024 bytes.

KEYBOARD - an external device of keys arranged in a certain order (a matrix of labeled keys) for generating symbols (generating a signal to the system) by pressing a key. K. Used in a typewriter, personal computer, printing device. The keys are divided into data keys and control keys.

CLASS - the highest taxonomic category in the taxonomy of facts, data, programs, libraries, etc. K is an element of the classification system, taken as the main one and representing a set of objects, phenomena, etc., combined according to one or more characteristics. A classroom is also a classroom or group of students.

Object class - a group of objects united by one or more identical parameters.

Keyboard - the most important device for entering text information into computer memory. All its keys can be divided into the following groups: function keys; character (alphanumeric) keys; cursor keys; special keys; additional keyboard.

CLASSIFICATION - 1. A system of subordinate concepts in any field or type of knowledge, used as a means for establishing connections between these concepts. K. is a system, the structure of which provides for the ordered arrangement of a multitude of objects, phenomena or processes based on the establishment of connections and dependencies between the characteristics of these things. K. can be library, auxiliary, dichotomous, decimal, natural, hierarchical, artificial, multidimensional, basic, patent, subject, universal, facet. 2. The process of assigning a thing to a certain division of a given classification, carried out on the basis of determining the presence or absence of specified characteristics in a thing

OLE client - an application that uses an OLE object.

Clients - network computers that have access to information resources or server devices.

CLIENT - SERVER - architecture or organization of building a network (including local and distributed), in which the computing load is divided between the computers included in its composition, performing the functions of “clients” and one powerful central computer - the “server”.

KEY - a data element or combination thereof used to identify and/or locate an instance of a data group; a rule for the connection between codes when they are converted.

KEYWORD (reserved word) - a lexeme that, when used in a given context, determines the interpretation of the context in which it is used or serves as a search feature.

Key - a field that uniquely identifies the corresponding record.

Code - a system of symbols for presenting information.

CODE - a system of symbols and unambiguous rules for their interpretation, used to represent data or commands in discrete form with their subsequent processing in a VM. K. is used to prescribe a way to represent data by signs of a certain set. Other interpretations of the concept of K. are similar. A code is a means of mapping characters from one set to characters from another set of characters according to coding rules. K. is a system of conventional signs (symbols) and their combinations, which are assigned certain meanings and which are used in coding. K. is a set of words of one alphabet, which is put into one-to-one correspondence with a set of words of another alphabet. K. can be additive, alphabetical, binary, additional, combinational, corrective, magnetic, irreversible, irreducible, reversible, inverse, optimal, optical, parity, perforation, complete, ordinal, direct, uniform, selector, semantic, triangular, color, digital .

Coding - recording information using a specific code.

Code table - a table that specifies the correspondence between characters and their codes.

AMOUNT OF INFORMATION- a measure of reducing the uncertainty of a certain situation that arises due to the fact that the outcomes of another situation become known.

"KOLOBOK" [kolobok] - an external device used to manually control the movement of the cursor on the display screen. "TO." has the appearance of a box that rolls freely on any surface. The main sensor "K." is a ball with a division grid for fixing two angular coordinates with an accuracy of a degree. Any movement of "K." changes the angular coordinates of the ball and the vertical and horizontal position of the cursor. Move "K." may be accompanied by the issuance of a control signal to the VM by pressing a button set to "K."

TEAM - a single step of operation of the VM executive device, presented in the form of an instruction in machine language. The code contains an operation code and, possibly, operands and an elementary act of the process of executing a VM program.

A COMMENT - a sequence of any characters (starting with two hyphens), used to increase the readability of a program or knowledge and intended for humans. K. is text that is optional for the program, highlighted with special characters. K. does not affect the correctness or incorrectness of the program or its meaning. K. is intended to explain, interpret the text or any part of it.

Compact disc (CD-ROM).- Permanent memory made using special optical technology. In the range of storage devices, it occupies a place between floppy and hard drives, being both mobile and very capacious.

COMPILED MODULE- a module included in the compilation along with a context specifier indicating the execution environment of the module.

COMPILING PROGRAM- software that, before launching a work program, puts together all its parts, program modules.

COMPILER - a system program (or technical device) that translates VM programs from one programming language into machine code and assembles modules into a single program. Testing can be interactive, optimizing, debugging, testing, and industrial.

COMPLEX - a set of objects, phenomena or processes that make up one whole. K. are basic, computing, display, robotic, terminal, specialized, and standard.

COMPOSITION - the operation of joining, in some sense, two or more objects or their values ​​to obtain a new object or value. For example, the K of two functions is the result of applying the first function to the result of the second function.

COMPONENT - an object that is part of a more complex object; a datum that is part of a more general (complex) composite datum. A component is called a subcomponent.

COMPUTER - the same as VM.

COMPUTERIZATION- universal training of people in computer science, computational mathematics and other sciences for the effective use of computers in all spheres of human activity. K. is also a restructuring of all types of human activity, aimed at the constant and widespread use of VM.

COMPUTER LITERACY- a set of knowledge, abilities and skills in the use of computer science and computer technology to solve problems of various kinds, spend leisure time and use VMs as a tool for intellectual work. K.g. is based on general educational and cultural literacy, including an understanding of such objects as a symbol, language, concept, data, the truth of statements, an algorithm and a human-VM system.

CONVERTER - a software tool for transcoding data from one machine code to another or from one format to another.

LANGUAGE CONVERTER - a translator from one high-level language to another high-level language.

FINITE BLURRY LOGIC- a field of computer logic that uses a finite set of truth values ​​derived in multi-valued logics. The difference between K.r.l. from multi-valued logic is the same as informational logic differs from classical logic.

CONCATENATION (CATENATION) - the operation of combining two texts into one text or two sequences of objects into one sequence.

SPECIFICATION (subroutine or package) - a library module designed to generate an instance of a subroutine or package according to the template specified by the name. Essentially, a call is a macro call that forms an instance of an executable program using a high-level language.

SPECIFIC CONCEPT- a concept that reflects the given object itself, the phenomenon itself or the process itself, a class of objects, phenomena or processes.

CONSTANT - own scalar or composite data, which does not change its value during program execution and is the original data.

CONTROL OF THE CORRECTNESS OF THE PROGRAM RECORDING- a computer science method that establishes the correctness of recording and identifying operations in expressions and operators to control the logic of using language constructs. Method K.p.z.p. is designed to automate the process of searching for syntactic, semantic, logical and pragmatic errors, in particular, the correct use of combined identifiers and operation designations.

Controller. - A device that connects peripheral equipment or communication channels to the central processor, relieving the processor from directly controlling the operation of this equipment.

CONTROL OF BELONGING OF VALUES TO A SET- a computer science method for establishing that the values ​​obtained during calculation belong to a specific set of values ​​to ensure the reliability of the process of forming constructions from language primitives; K.p.z.m. - these are also techniques for syntactic and semantic description of types and subtypes, their attributes and permissible operations on them.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION- expression or representation of a specific set of system elements connected by specific relationships, characteristics or connections among themselves

Team - one sentence in the language to indicate actions.

Communication environmentis a set of conditions for the exchange of information.

Computer - a universal software-controlled device for working with information; can be used for many purposes: processing, storing and transmitting a wide variety of information, application in a wide variety of human activities; a system that includes subsystems of hardware, software and information resources.

Computer graphics- different types of graphic images created or processed using a computer

Computer modelis a model implemented by means of a software environment.

Computer aided design- the process of creating a computer object from standard elementary objects.

Computer network- a system of interconnected computers and terminals designed to transmit, store and process information.

Computer communication Wednesday - a set of conditions necessary for the exchange of information between people via computers.

Computer techologies- information technologies based on computer data processing.

Constructor - the mode in which the table or form is built.

CONCEPTUAL SUPPORT- a set of concepts and their definitions that establishes the subject and problem area for posing and solving problems.

CONCEPTUAL PROGRAMMING- a direction in computer science based on the description of concepts to express the meaning and form of a specific problem, according to the description of which results can be automatically obtained or programs can be synthesized for execution. K.p. includes this type of programming as object-oriented.

Context menu- menu associated with the object. The context menu opens when you right-click when the mouse pointer is over an object. Through the context menu, you can view the properties of an object (in some cases they can be changed), as well as perform valid actions on the object.

CONJUNCTION - a logical "and" operator that evaluates to true only if both operands are true.

COPY - forming a copy of some records or messages in another part of the memory (storage device), for example, to prevent the loss or corruption of important records or messages.

COPY - a recording or message identical to the original that constitutes a circulation for the dissemination or protection of information.

CORTEGE - a composite value formed by a variable or infinite number of similar components - elements of a complex (as opposed to an aggregate).

Conjunction "AND" - a logical operation that has the value “true” if all the components of the statement are true together.

Basket - the system folder in which deleted files are placed. The file physically disappears from the computer's memory only after the Recycle Bin is emptied.

Corporate network- consolidation of local networks within one corporation.

CRYPTOGRAPHY - a set of methods and means of semantic transformation of information in order to ensure the secrecy of its content; protecting a message by turning it into a meaningless string of characters that can only be decrypted by a person or device that knows the key; Before transmitting a message, it is encoded, and upon reception, decoding is carried out.

CRITERION - a quantitative or qualitative feature, which during assessment (comparison) is accepted as the most significant. K. is intended for assessment and/or selection of an object, phenomenon or process from an acceptable set. K. is used to select the optimal item or process from an acceptable set or to evaluate existing items or processes.

CROSS - a prefix for a word denoting a software tool on a VM other than the VM on which this tool is resident (for example, cross-assembler, cross-translator, cross-compiler, etc.).

CROSS COMPILER- a compiler that converts a program written in one of the programming languages ​​into a machine language with an instruction system (architecture) different from the one on which compilation is performed.

CURSOR - a mark (symbol) on the display screen in the form of a spot of light, for example a flashing underscore, indicating the location where the next character can be displayed. The shape of the light can be different, but the display can be stable in light, flashing or indistinguishable.

CACHE MEMORY - a type of random access memory for storing the most frequently used commands and data from RAM.

Laser (optical)disk - an information carrier in the form of a plastic or aluminum disk, intended for recording and/or reading information using a laser beam.

LEXICOGRAPHICAL ORDER- an order on a set of texts, in which one text precedes another if its constituent characters, starting from the first (from left to right), are smaller in value; if the values ​​of the characters are equal, there are fewer in number.

LEXICON - a dictionary of terms used to describe subject and problem areas, along with the characteristics of each term, its meaning and definition. L. is the basis of the knowledge base.

LEXICAL ANALYSIS- part of the grammatical analysis of texts (for example, programs) to isolate lexemes and then replace them with conditional codes to facilitate further syntactic analysis. Procedure L.a. generates tables of lexemes created by the author of the text.

LEMMA - an auxiliary sentence used to prove other statements.

LEMMATISATION - automatic compilation of dictionaries.

Laptop (knee pad).- Computer. It is close in size to a regular briefcase. In terms of basic characteristics (speed, memory) it roughly corresponds to desktop personal computers.

LIMITED TYPE- a personal type with a description deferred to the corresponding personal section of the package and with a limited number of operations determined by the introduction of this type.

LINGUISTICS - a branch of knowledge that deals with the study of language (its structure, properties, etc.). L. can be mathematical and structural.

LINGUISTIC ERROR- the result of incorrect use of forms and characteristics of terms in known contexts. L.o. are detected automatically by tables, dictionaries of words and terms (using a lexicon) when translating source texts into the formal internal language of Leibniz.

LINGUISTIC PROCESSOR- a mathematical machine, the processor of which implements the operational primitives of a certain programming language, and the memory - descriptions of objects of this language.

LINGUISTIC SUPPORT- a set of data languages, programming languages ​​and their descriptions used in a specific area of ​​solving a class of problems

Linear algorithm- an algorithm in which commands are executed in the order in which they are written, that is, sequentially one after another.

Program Sheet - a sheet containing all programs and allowing them to be edited.

LIPS - a unit of measurement of performance when performing logical inference according to a program composed of operations-steps of logical inference, application of transformation rules. LIPS is expressed as the number of inference steps per second. In modern logic programming, the speed of programs is characterized by the number of 10,000 steps per second.

LISTING - printing out representations of data and programs resulting from, for example, program translation; L. may contain the text of the source program, intermediate or object code, a table of links or characteristics, diagnostic

messages, etc. Texts of different forms in the printout can be compared in pairs (bilisting), in threes (trilisting), etc.

LETTER - element of the alphabet. L. can be written, printed, sound, pulsed, or punched. Each L. has an idea.

LITERAL - an image of a value of some type, which specifies in the program the corresponding basic operation of converting an image into a value; see numeric literal, enumeration literal, null literal, and character literal.

ENUM LITERAL- a term denoting meaning or modality in many-valued logics.

LITERAL EMPTY - the only basic operation on a reference type to obtain a reference to nothing; a basic operation specified by the reserved word null and producing an empty reference value that does not point to any object at all.

PERSONAL TYPE - a type whose description is deferred and located in the personal section of the package and whose use is limited only to the package. L.t. may be limited, limited, then a smaller number of operations are applicable to the data of the type.

LOGICS - the science of methods of proof and refutation; a set of scientific theories. The most common are deductive and inductive logics. Law can be probabilistic, two-valued, mathematical, multi-valued, modal, normative, formal, intuitionistic, and informational.

LOGIC OF COMPUTER SCIENCE (IL)- theoretical foundations of computer science, based on methods for solving logical equations. IL is called information logic; it consists of a language of professional prose, a set of axioms for defining constants, quantities and operations, a set of inference rules and a single axiom “truth” to indicate the purpose of logical inference (see information logic).

LOGIC COMPUTING MACHINE- A VM for which the basis of programming is logical programming: objects, operations and statements about them are declared, the processor constructs the output of the statement (user request) and finds the conditions for their truth.

LOGICAL DEBUGGING OF KNOWLEDGE- establishing global and local consistency, independence and completeness of knowledge in the database and queries.

LOGICAL RECORD- a piece of data for processing or as a result of one processing step. L.z. is also a unit of exchange of a program with a database or data bank, with a knowledge base.

LOGICAL PROCESSOR- a virtual processor used when it is necessary to execute several programs (tasks) in parallel in the presence of one or more physical processors.

BOLOGICAL TYPE - a predefined enum type of two enumeration literals, false or true, false or true , related by the well-known inequality relation lie .

LOGICAL EXPRESSION- an expression that, as a result of execution, takes a truth value from the set (false, true).

LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF INFORMATION COMPUTING NETWORK- a form of representation of an information and computer network in the form of its interconnected logical elements - functions performed by systems.

Logic element (gate).- Part of an electronic logic circuit that performs a basic logical function.

Logical statement.- Any sentence in relation to which it can be unambiguously said whether it is true or false.

LOCAL DB - a database located on one or more media on one computer;

LOGIC PROGRAMMING- a new direction in computer science, based on a set of techniques for formalizing knowledge about a problem and setting tasks in the language of logical calculus, transferring them to a VM to replenish the knowledge base necessary for solving a problem or task, or for synthesizing programs. L.p. involves research on machine theorem proving, which considers the specification of a problem in the form of a logical expression, the output tree of this expression and the extraction of an algorithm (program) from the output tree. L.p. is the basis for automatic program synthesis.

LOGICAL EQUATION- an analytical recording of the problem of finding the values ​​of the arguments for which the values ​​of two given logical functions are equal. The arguments on which these functions depend are usually called unknowns, and the values ​​of the unknowns for which the logical values ​​of the functions are equal are called solutions to the equation.

LOCAL COMPUTING NETWORK- a set of computing means of terminal devices, information exchange tools, combined into a distributed data processing system, all elements of which are located in a small area and have a common channel for transmitting messages.

Logics - a science that studies the laws and forms of thinking, methods of reasoning and evidence.

Logic model- a model in which various conditions are analyzed

LOCAL OBJECT- an object internal to a given program or a given program module (defined in its composition), which takes on an initial value when the program or program module is executed and, possibly, loses it after the program is executed and a new value is assigned.

The local network - association of computers located at short distances from each other.

MEGABYTE (MB) - unit of measurement for data storage. MB = 1024 KB.

SHOP - sequentially organized memory with a top, which, when the memory is filled, is released, moving the data deeper, and when the memory is freed, it is filled, moving the data from the memory (see stack).

DATA STORE - see data stack.

HIGHWAY - internal communication channel of devices in the VM, used for data exchange between devices.

LAYOUT (program) - a pre-created program, a preliminary design of a program, a trial copy of a program, the properties and functions of which correspond to the program that is the final software product.

MACROASSEMBLER - a macrogenerator whose base language is assembly language.

MAC CALL - an indication in the (macro) program of the need to substitute a specific program template, configured according to its settings and ready for execution.

MACRO GENERATOR - a system program that replaces macro commands in the source language with a certain equivalent sequence of commands in the object language. A set of macro instructions forms a macro library. The source of object text generation is a macro definition. Object text generation is the process of obtaining object text from macro definitions as a result of a macro call by a macro command. M deals with instantiating the configuration of a custom module to obtain an instance of a routine or package.

MACRO COMMAND - a line of source program code that initiates the procedure for generating a line of object program code.

MACRO DEFINITION- a set of templates corresponding to a separate macro, and an algorithm for calculating inserted text from these templates, taking into account the properties and parameter values.

MACRO PROGRAMMING- a computer science method containing methods for syntactic and semantic description of development tools, parametric custom software modules, which are used to automatically generate various instances of executable modules. The actual settings can be objects, data types, subroutines and texts. The M method is intended for creating program templates for a family of various programs. Concretizing the templates results in an executable form. The M method is usually formalized in assembly languages ​​and is sometimes formalized in high-level programming languages.

MACRO - a command programming tool that indicates the need to insert text instead, obtained from templates and its actual parameters.

MACRO LEVEL - the top level of a certain hierarchy of elements accepted and participating in the design and development processes (macro modules, macro commands, etc.).

Master - a software module for performing any operations.

MARKER - a special sign on the storage medium to indicate the boundaries of the zone and recognize the properties of the recorded information.

MASK - a positional code, each bit of which serves to perform a specific function, for example, highlighting a bit, byte, word, etc.

ARRAY - an object of an indexed type, the values ​​of which are aggregates of values ​​of the same type. A model is a one- or multidimensional data structure, the elements of which are ordered in such a way that their description uniquely determines the position of each element or the path to access it.

MASS STORAGE DEVICE, MASS STORAGE- 1. External mass storage device. - 2. A backup storage system such as a library of magnetic tape cartridges that can contain very large volumes of data records.

ZOOMING- presentation of quantities in such a way that their values ​​and the results of operations on them are within a given range. Scale factors are used to bring values ​​to a given range.

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION- reception of proof of general provisions in mathematics and mathematical logic. The basic principle of M.I.: let P be some property of natural numbers; the number 0 corresponds to some property P; if the number n has some property P, then the number following it also has the property P; then each natural number m has the property P. P(n) is an induction sentence, the variable n is an induction variable, P(0) is an induction basis, the properties of the natural number following n is an induction step.

MATHEMATICAL LINGUISTICS- a mathematical discipline, the subject of which is the development of a formal apparatus for describing the structure of natural and artificial languages.

MATHEMATICAL LOGIC- a field of mathematics that studies formal systems using mathematical methods and special apparatus for studying thinking using calculus. M.l. explores the patterns of inferred knowledge obtained from previously established and verified truths without recourse to experience. German philosopher and mathematician G.W. Leibniz was the first to introduce mathematical symbolism into logic. He dreamed of creating a logic in which the rules of logical inference would be replaced by computational rules. He presented the first sketches of the construction of logical calculus. G.V. Leibniz created the foundation of computer science.

MATHEMATICAL MACHINE (MM)- a virtual VM implemented in software by an interpreter of the architecture of this VM. MM can be deterministic, probabilistic, non-deterministic or deductive. MM is an abstract device or a programmed machine that processes data or information representations.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL- a complete set of mathematical objects (objects, numbers, variables, matrices, sets, points, figures, etc.) and relationships between them, reflecting some properties of the thing being modeled.

MATHEMATICAL SIGNS- conventional graphic symbols intended for recording mathematical concepts, sentences and calculations. The very first M.Z. - numbers.

MATH MODELING- a method of studying natural (for example physical) phenomena or processes using special information models; The method is based on the identity and unambiguity of the forms and relationships between the quantities (in equations) of the original and the model.

MATHEMATICAL SOFTWARE- a set of information models, methods and algorithms for solving problems on a VM.

MATHEMATICAL SUPPORT FOR AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM- a set of algorithms and programs necessary to control the system and solve, with its help, problems of information processing by computer technology.

CAR (information) - a device that mechanically performs operations of transforming information representations. M. can be diagnostic, virtual, computing, control, mathematical, keyboard, teaching, sorting, and counting. In addition to informational materials, there are energy materials (wedge, reactor, engine, etc.) and materials for the transformation of matter.

ALGEBRAIC INFERENCE MACHINE (MAV)a mathematical or physical machine that operates with expressions according to the laws of algebra to obtain solutions to user requests. MAV is part of the intelligent system processor.

LOGICAL INFERENCE MACHINE (MLM)- a mathematical or physical machine that operates with knowledge bases presented in some internal language and with user requests to output an answer to this request. MLV is part of the processor of an intelligent (in particular, expert) system.

POST MACHINE - a type of Turing machine.

TURING MACHINE [ Turing machine] is a mathematical machine that is defined by a finite number of states, a finite number of input and output symbols, and commands to transform a pair (state, symbol) into a triple (state, symbol, moving the tape one position). MT. studied to evaluate the general properties of algorithms and is usually used to establish the properties of mathematical machines of some structure.

MACHINE GRAPHICS- creation, processing, storage of models of objects or processes and their images using computers and terminal devices: printing devices, tablet or drum plotters, movie cameras or video recorders, display terminals, gaming computers with televisions, gaming microprocessors, etc.

MACHINE ORIENTED LANGUAGE- a programming language that allows you to take into account the features of the command system, data representation and VM architecture. An example is M-o.ya. is an assembly language.

MACHINE (COMPUTER) GRAPHICS- use of computer technology to create graphic images, display them by various means (for example, on a monitor screen, in the form of hard copies, etc.) and manipulate them.

MACHINE READABLE MEDIA- a medium suitable for direct recording and reading of data by technical means (computers).

MACHINE WORD - an ordered set of bits or a finite sequence of codes (symbols) stored, retrieved or written from RAM at one address as a single code group.

MACHINE TRANSLATE- translation of texts from one (usually natural) language to another, performed according to formal rules implemented in the form of programs. M.p. includes text input, lexical analysis, syntactic analysis, semantic analysis, synthesis of output text and its output from the VM. M.p. - the problem of programmable intelligence.

MACHINE LANGUAGE - a formal programming language for writing algorithms that takes into account all VM resources.

Mathematical model- description of an object or process with a set of formulas connecting their quantitative parameters.

Machine word - the number of bits (for example, 8, 16 or 32) that the processor has simultaneous access to.

MEGAFLOP - a unit of VM performance, measured by the number of millions of operations per second on bits.

MAINFRAME - a large, high-performance computer with a very significant amount of RAM and external memory, which performs the functions of a server in developed local area networks (LAN) with a large number of peripheral computers and terminals.

Menu - a list of commands, by selecting which the user can control the computer.

META - a prefix for words denoting the recursive (reflexive) application of the corresponding concept.

META STATEMENT- a statement about a statement for its definition, analysis or synthesis.

METADATA - data about knowledge of data, information about data that is stored in data dictionaries, data models, diagrams and other representations.

METACONCEPT - a concept defined by a list of known and described concepts of the lower level of some classification. M. are used to classify concepts and define sets of known concepts for manipulation with them.

METARULE - a rule for constructing and using a rule in logic or analytical transformations.

METAPROGRAM - a program designed to process other programs that are data for M, for example a compiler or assembler.

METASYMBOL - a symbol used in the construction of formal grammars.

METALANGUAGE - a language in which the examination of some other language is carried out, the study of the structure of expressions, the proof of theorems on deductive properties and on relations to other languages ​​of the language in question. M. is a formal conventional language for the formal description of another language.

MARK - operator identifier intended to indicate a point in the program text to which control can be transferred. M. is a simple name placed before a statement, block or loop and used to jump into or exit from a block or loop. Using a M to jump to the execution of that labeled statement occurs after the Jump statement has been executed with that M. Placing a M before a statement or expression implicitly introduces a new identifier or term. Using a M to exit a block or cycle is carried out after executing the exit statement from this M.

METHOD - a method of achieving a goal, a process for solving a specific problem, a set of techniques and operations for the practical or theoretical development (cognition) of reality.

ANALOGIES METHOD - a method of computer science at the invention stage, intended to create a new object or process based on the use of analogies. M.a. uses practical analogies - direct, factual, literary, personal, mixed; theoretical analogies - physical, mathematical, technical, logical, functional, structural.

ACCESS METHOD - method and means of organizing storage and exchange of data between VMs and storage devices. The most commonly used types of access are: direct, random, virtual, sequential, index-sequential, library, graphical, index, hierarchical, etc., access methods: with queues and basic, collective and telecommunication.

RESEARCH METHOD- a method, technique in which the study of an object, phenomenon or process is carried out.

METHODOLOGY - the doctrine of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity. Mathematics of science is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. M. consists of three components: science, technology and folklore.

PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY- a combination of three sides: computer science (see definition), programming technology and pragmatics (practical applications). Pragmatics includes the systematization of requests, experience, and needs of programming practice.

A METHOD FOR INCREASING PROGRAMMING PRODUCTIVITY- ways to take into account the human factor, reduce the complexity of the program, possibly reduce the reliability of the program, reduce restrictions, use modern programming methods and tools, unification, use of mathematical machines and high-level languages.

TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD- a method of computer science at the invention stage, based on finding ways to solve a problem and assessing their quality or suitability, their acceptance or rejection depending on success or failure in achieving the goal. M.p.o. involves searching along the vector of inertia - using habits, the ability to find bottlenecks, etc.; in all directions - the use of a multidimensional vector of thinking inertia; in the pursuit of an ideal final result - a targeted search, restraining aspirations, etc.; with abstraction from trends - transition to other trends; combining other search techniques.

TOP-DOWN METHOD- a method of invention, design, development or maintenance of a program, consisting in the sequential creation of modules (or a sequential solution to a problem) that have not yet been created, but there is a reference to them in already developed modules (for problems: from the general problem to its component parts) .

BOTTOM-UP METHOD- a method of invention, design, development or maintenance of a program, consisting of the sequential creation of modules (or a sequential solution to a problem), links to which will be used in the created modules (for problems: from its part to the solution of the target problem).

METHOD OF TECHNICAL SYNTHESIS- an informatics method at the invention stage, based on the use of: combination, combination, fragmentation, re-arrangement, mediation, replacement; improving the convenience of transfer, adaptation, change of state; changes in the quality of forms, strengthening, weakening; cost factors from reduction in price, revaluation; on the use of techniques for constructing anti-objects: anti-objects, anti-phenomena or anti-processes.

FOCAL OBJECT METHOD- a method of computer science at the invention stage, based on the analysis of the properties of the source and resulting objects and the formation of a new object by attributing the properties of the original objects to the result object. For example, earth-ball (initial object), house-housing (resulting object) - we build a house-ball. M.f.o. can use sets of original objects or properties to create new objects or properties.

METHODS FOR FORMING NEW KNOWLEDGE- a set of techniques and methods for constructing new descriptions, ways of understanding, definitions of concepts, ideas, formalizations and use of knowledge. There are a significant number of specific methods, among which we can note: searching for the required data, reasoning about data and representations of information, combining and dismembering data, building modules, monitoring the state or development of objects, phenomena or processes, building action plans, compiling new representations, training , analysis and synthesis, as well as other methods and techniques.

MICRO CALCULATOR- portable microcomputer for individual use. M. can be simple, engineering, or programmable.

MICROPROGRAM - a sequence of microinstructions of a specific microprocessor and data designed to execute macroinstructions (processor instructions or machine instructions).

MICROPROGRAMMING - representation of machine commands by a sequence of microinstructions (or firmware), usually implemented in hardware and software.

MICROPROCESSOR - a processor, usually designed on a single chip or in the form of a large integrated circuit that performs a small number of simple operations from which microprograms are compiled.

MIPS - unit of measurement of VM performance; M is equal to 1 million operations per second.

MNEMOCODE - a symbolic record of a command, including records of the operation code, operands, addresses, etc. this command, in machine-oriented programming languages ​​or assembly languages.

IMAGINARY - existing only in the imagination.

MULTI-VALUED LOGIC- an area of ​​mathematical logic in which a finite or infinite number of truth values ​​are accepted. M.l. used in solving paradoxes in various fields of knowledge.

A BUNCH OF - a set, set, collection of any nature of various objects, called elements of material, which have a characteristic property common to all elements; there is always an element with certain properties, it belongs to some M.; for all elements of M. a certain property is satisfied.

Model - an object that is used as a “substitute”, a representative of another object (the original) for a specific purpose

MODELING - representation of certain properties of system behavior by VM actions ensuring functional correspondence, for example, a VM interpreter simulates the execution of a program of another VM. M. is based on inferences by analogy. M. is carried out for the purpose of studying things when it is impossible to study them in natural conditions. M. can be subject, linguistic, physical, logical, mathematical, symbolic, etc.

MODEL - a physical system (device, machine, network of machines, etc.), information system (scheme, drawing, sign system, algorithm, etc.) or mathematical description of functions that reflect the essential properties of the subject, phenomenon or process being studied; M. is also any image of any object, phenomenon or process. The thing being studied is called the original, sample, prototype.

DATA MODEL - logical data structure with properties independent of hardware and software; M.d. can be represented by diagrams, structures, in some format, and other ways.

Information model

Mathematical model

Full-scale model

Verbal model

MODEL NUMBER - a value of real type accurately represented in the VM memory; all operations are defined in terms of operations on M.p.; set of properties of M.p. and the operations on them are the minimal ones prescribed for all implementations of real numbers of a given type.

MODULE - a functionally closed structure (for example, a subroutine) with the properties of blocking, integrity, syntactic and semantic independence, hiding data, objects and control, having a specification for establishing an interface with other M. and a body for specifying actions; formal definition of software M. Usually defined in programming languages.

MODULAR PROGRAMMING- a computer science method aimed at applying methods for representing large and very large programs from observable, controllable and modifiable parts-modules that meet the requirements of integrity, functional closure, syntactic and semantic certainty, relative independence, interface specification, independence in design, development and maintenance, hiding their data, objects, operations and management, which are small in size, have only one input and output for management, and are detached from the project. M.p. designed to organize the work of a team of programmers on one project and to ensure reuse of programs.

MODULARITY - property of a program or technical device represented by modules.

PROGRAM MODULE- a syntactically and semantically defined program unit containing a header (description or specification and body), possibly a description of internal objects, a sequence of statements and redundant sequences of statements to ensure program reliability and intended for hiding (abstracting from) data, operations and control, reuse this unit, increasing the efficiency and quality of work on creating a program, visibility and protection of program texts.

BRAIN ATTACK - a computer science method for studying objects, phenomena or processes, based on the collective formulation of ideas. Group M.a. works in accordance with a friendly code that excludes any form of criticism and allows the formulation of ideas without justification. Group Code M.a. encourages group members to quickly generate a large number of ideas.

PROGRAM MONITOR- a system program that monitors the execution of programs; M. performs the functions of: collecting information representations, allocating memory for programs, monitoring the time of resource use, determining the order in which programs are launched, monitoring the correct execution of programs, handling interrupts, and synchronizing programs.

Information model- description of the original object in one of the information coding languages. There are figurative, symbolic and mixed information models.

Mathematical model- a model built using mathematical concepts and formulas.

Full-scale model - a real object that, in a reduced or enlarged form, reproduces the appearance, structure or behavior of the simulated object.

Verbal model- description of a situation, event, process in natural language.

My computer - system folder, the root of the Microsoft Windows hierarchical file system. Always located on the desktop.

Multi-column layout- arrangement of text in several columns.

Modeling - research of objects by constructing and studying their models

Model - a simplified representation of a real object.

Client-server modeldefines a software development process consisting of two parts - server and client, where protocols for the exchange of information between them are observed.

Object model - a simplified representation of a real object

Modem - a device designed to convert and transfer data between remote computers.

Module - an independent object that can be part of other, more complex objects.

Program module - a set of procedures (tool objects) connected by certain rules.

Monitor - a device for outputting video information.

MULTIPROGRAMMING- a programming method that allows the simultaneous execution of two or more independent or data- and control-dependent programs with dynamic distribution of VM resources.

MULTIPROCESSOR PROCESSING- simultaneous processing of parts or segments of one program under the control of a single operating system.

MULTISYSTEM - a system of several VMs with data exchange or on a common data stream.

GARBAGE - used, distorted or useless information that can be removed from memory by assembling M.

THOUGHT - the result, the product of the thinking process in the form of a judgment, conclusion or concept that reflects the general in the mass of individual objects, phenomena or processes, captures the essential, the whole, the natural in all the diversity of the real world.

THINKING - the highest product of matter organized in a special way, the active process of reflecting the objective world in the human brain in the form of judgments, concepts and conclusions; spiritual activity of a person is sensations, comprehension, isolation, representation, generalization, formation or reflection. M. can be factual, contextual, conceptual, intuitive, logical, procedural, and predictive.

"MOUSE" - a device that fixes a flickering mark (square, dash, rectangle, arrow or other icon) on the display screen during the “M” movement. and keystrokes, leaving a graphical path on the screen when using graphics programs. See "COLOBOK".

Multimedia product- interactive computer development, which may include music, video clips, animation, galleries of pictures and slides, various databases, etc.

Upgrade- (English: Upgrade) - updating, upgrading a PC (personal computer), i.e. replacement of outdated components with more modern ones.

Archiving- data compression in order to reduce its volume. Used for more efficient storage and transmission of data. For archiving, special archiving programs are used (for example, WinRar).

Bit- the minimum unit of information in the binary system. The bit value is always either 0 or 1.

Byte- usually 8 bits.

Browser- a program with which you can view pages on the Internet (Internet Explorer, Opera, Netscape, etc.).

Clipboard- an area of ​​computer RAM in which data of various formats can be stored for transferring or copying between applications or parts of one application.
Typically, content copied to a buffer erases its previous content.
The most common combinations for working with the clipboard:
Ctrl+C - copy selected objects to the clipboard.
Ctrl+X - cut selected objects to the clipboard (for moving).
Ctrl+V - paste from clipboard.

Virus(computer) - a harmful program that enters a computer most often from the Internet or from an “infected” disk. Performs the harmful actions prescribed in it, preventing it from working normally. Destroyed by antivirus programs.

"Winchester"- a disk on which all information is stored on a PC. Located inside the system unit. The second name is hard disk (English: Hard Disk Drive - HDD).

Driver- a program that provides data exchange between a computer and equipment connected to it (for example, a printer, scanner, etc.). Until the driver is installed, the equipment does not work. Many drivers are installed during installation of the system on the PC.

Installation- installation of a program or operating system on a PC.

Kilobyte(KB, KB) - a unit of measurement of the amount of information, equal to 1024 bytes. Used to indicate the amount of memory.

Logical hard drive partition- usually a hard disk (HDD) is divided for convenience into sections C:, D:, etc. These are logical partitions (or logical drives). One physical disk can be represented as several logical disks and we have, as it were, not one disk, but two or more (although we have one physical disk). Windows is usually installed in the C: partition.

operating system(OS) is the most important program that is installed on the computer first and ensures subsequent data exchange between the computer and a person (examples of OS - Windows, Linux).

Task bar- a panel at the bottom of the screen, on which icons for programs that are used most often are placed for quick access.

- shutdown Windows and then immediately start Windows. Often a reboot is used after installing some programs and drivers or if the PC is frozen (that is, does not respond to pressing the keyboard and mouse buttons).

Reinstallation- installing the operating system or program first. Reinstalling Windows is often done when the system starts to malfunction.

Peripherals- additional devices for the computer (printer, scanner, etc.)

Desktop- this is the entire working area of ​​the screen. You place icons (shortcuts) of programs on the screen, like on a table, and you can move them as you wish.

Registry is a database for storing information about the computer and operating system. The registry contains data that Windows constantly accesses during startup, operation, and shutdown.

Software- the same as software (programs) that are installed on a PC.

Utilities- these are utility (non-application) programs that are used to configure, control, restore, and protect the operating system. These are just some of the functions that utilities can perform. There are actually a lot of them.

File- a collection of data (a piece of information) on a disk with a name that a PC user works with. This can be a document, a program (or its individual element). All information on the disk is stored in the form of files.

Disk formatting- disk partitioning process (HDD, floppy disks). Typically, formatting destroys all information on a hard drive.

Hosting- placement of your information (usually a website) on a 24/7 computer connected to high-speed Internet channels.

"Kettle"- a beginner in any business.

Chipset(chip) - a set of microcircuits that determines the characteristics of the system (computer). Created for specific processors and memory types.

"User"- (English user) user.

BIOS- a program that the processor executes to start the computer after it is turned on. In addition, the BIOS controls the exchange of data between the computer's operating system and the peripheral devices connected to it.

Other terms (slang) you can search for

Sooner or later, almost every modern person begins to master the computer. There is nowhere without him now. And if anyone wants to have a normal job with a decent salary, then computer literacy is one of the conditions for this. We don’t talk about young people at all, since already from school, most of them are PC users. Where should you start? The answer is simple - learn computer terms, the basis of all subsequent learning.

Presenting information is impossible without special expressions, phrases, and phrases, even when explaining it to “dummies.” And therefore you need to slowly study and memorize them. Let's look at some common computer terms as examples.

For general development, more specific computer terms are presented below.

1. Subscriber digital Internet line format, ADSL - data is transmitted up to 1 Mbit/s, received - up to 8 Mbit/s.
2. Advanced Technology Attachment, ATA - this is the name given to the bus for connecting various storage devices, such as hard drives.
3. Basic Input/Output System, BIOS - a set of programs to check the operation of PC hardware at startup.

You shouldn’t be afraid of incomprehensible names; as you learn, computer terms will gradually become memorized, and over time you will no longer be confused by them.

Actually, all this is not a matter of one day, and in order to successfully master this task, you will need: the computer/laptop itself, a tutorial on how to use it, and the Internet. Unless, of course, you sign up for specialized courses, but continue to master the computer on your own.

Initially, it is advisable to at least read the tutorial, or even part of it, and you can start your device. After downloading, open the Help and Support section and pay attention to it. Put what you read into practice. So things will go slowly. Over time, you will notice that you no longer need to look at the prompts every time to perform some action.

As you master the computer, you can purchase more complex literature or a self-instruction CD; also, do not hesitate to ask friends or work colleagues. You can learn the basics without a device, but it will be more difficult. And remember that theory without practice is quickly forgotten.

In conclusion, I would like to note: despite the fact that the bulk of computer equipment in our country is still imported, companies producing Russian computers are gaining momentum. This could be seen at recent exhibitions in the Expocentre complex, where visitors were shown domestic personal computers, new processors, laptops, and other various electronics that run on components and software of their own production. All this is intended not only for military departments and the civilian production industry, but also for business and civilians, that is, for you and me. And, frankly, there is a lot to see. So master the computer and enjoy all the benefits of civilization!

Graphics adapter- a device that controls the display and provides graphic output. Determines the display resolution (number of dots per unit screen area), number of colors.

LAN adapter(network adapter, network interface card - NIC) - an adapter for connecting a computer to a local network of computers. For example, to connect a personal computer to an Ethernet network, use the NE-2000 adapter.

Azo compounds- a class of organic compounds containing one (or more) azo group -N=N-. They are colored and many of them are used as dyes (azo dyes or azo dye). Can be used in recordable CD/DVD technologies.

Analog-to-digital converter(ADC) - a device that converts an analog signal into a digital signal and vice versa. For example, to transmit data over a digital telephone network using a modem, an analog-to-digital adapter is placed between the modem and the digital telephone channel.

Aperture- the actual opening of the optical system, determined by the dimensions of the lenses, mirrors or diaphragms. Angular aperture is the angle a between the outer rays of a conical light beam entering the system. The numerical aperture is equal to n sin α/2, where n is the refractive index of the medium. The illumination of the image is proportional to the square of the numerical aperture.

Open architecture- architecture developed by IBM for personal computers. Main features: the presence of a common information bus, to which it is possible to connect various additional devices via expansion connectors; modular construction of a computer; compatibility of all new devices and software with previous versions on a top-down basis.

Von Neumann architecture- the architecture of a computer that has one arithmetic-logical unit through which the data flow passes, and one control device through which the command flow passes.

Asynchronous data transfer- a method of transmitting and a method of extracting data from a continuous stream of messages, in which the sending side enters start and stop bits into each data, indicating where the data begins and where it ends.

Audio adapter(Sound Blaster, sound card) is a board that allows you to record sound, play it back and generate it in software using a microphone, headphones, speakers, built-in synthesizer and other equipment.

Basic I/O System(Basic Input/Output System - BIOS) - programs designed to perform the following functions: testing the main computer devices; recognizing the types of devices installed on the computer; calling the operating system boot block; servicing system interrupts. In most computers, the BIOS is written to a permanent storage device by the computer manufacturer and has no means for the user to change it.

Byte- a machine word of minimum size, addressed during data processing. The byte size - 8 bits - is adopted not only for representing data in most computers, but also as a standard for storing data on external media, for transmitting data over communication channels, and for presenting text information.

Bit(English Binary digiT - binary unit) - a unit of measurement of the amount of information, equal to the amount of information contained in an experience that has two equally probable outcomes. It is the smallest unit of information in a digital computer, taking the value "0" or "1".

Baud(baud, bit/s, bps) - unit of measurement for data transfer speed.

Drive performance- speed of reading/writing data in the drive. It is determined by two parameters: average access time and data transfer rate.

Processor speed- speed of operations performed by the processor. Since the speed of individual operations of a processor is different, the speed of the entire processor is taken to be either the speed of executing register-to-register commands or the speed of executing commands on floating point numbers. The latter has a special name - flops (from Flops - FLoating point Operations Per Second).

Vector graphics- a method of representing an image as a set of graphic elements (graphic primitives - segments, arcs, etc.), described in any way, including graphic commands.

Video adapter- an electronic board that processes video data (text and graphics) and controls the operation of the display. Contains video memory, input/output registers and BIOS module. Sends ray brightness control signals and image scanning signals to the display.

Video memory- additional memory to ensure high-quality images on the display. It is part of the video adapter and has a capacity of up to several tens of MB. Images of one or more screens are formed in video memory, which are then sent to the display. On some computers, video memory is allocated from RAM.

External devices(VU) - input/output and information storage devices. The devices are connected to the system using interfaces that implement certain parallel or serial communication protocols. The VU includes a keyboard, monitor, external storage devices using floppy or hard magnetic disks, optical disks (CD-ROM), magnetic tapes and other types of storage media, sensors and information converters (analog-to-digital or digital-to-analog), actuators ( indicators, printers, electric motors, relays and others). Because they are typically much slower than others, the control device must pause the program to complete an I/O operation on the corresponding device.

Fiber Optic Cable- a cable that transmits data using light, which increases the speed and quality of transmission. In the simplest case, a light guide is a fiber (flexible) dielectric made of quartz glass and surrounded by a cladding with a refractive index lower than that of the core.

Octal number system- positional number system with base 8. For example, 123 8 is equal to 1 * 8 2 + 2 * 8 1 + 3 * 8 0 =64 + 16 + 3=83 10

computer network. A set of computers, auxiliary equipment, communication channels and special software for transmitting data between network elements. Depending on the tasks, type of equipment and communication lines, computer networks are divided into local, corporate, territorial and global. Networks are created for more complete use of resources or their redistribution, for fast and automatic communication with the transfer of large volumes of data.

Clock generator- a device for generating a sequence of pulses at equal intervals of time. The time between two successive pulses is called a clock cycle. Some processor instructions are executed in several clock cycles. Pulses passing through all elements of the computer force them to work in a single clock cycle - synchronously. The frequency at which clock pulses are generated determines the speed of the computer.

Flexible magnetic disk- a disk made of flexible plastic in a protective plastic package, in which holes are cut for access to magnetic I/O heads. The disk is coated with a magnetic compound. Often called a floppy disk or floppy disk. Disks with a diameter of 5.25 and 3.5 inches are used.

Gigabyte(GB) is a unit of measurement containing 1024 MB. As an alternative, the IEC proposed GiB (Gibibyte) in 1998; 1 GiB=1024 MiB (Mibibyte).

Main (internal, random access) memory (RAM) of the computer- an ordered sequence (array) of bytes or machine words (memory cells).

Global computer network- a set of individual computers and local networks located in different countries, connected by different communication channels and operating in different software environments. This set has agreed upon interaction protocols.

Plotter- a device for outputting information from a computer in the form of graphs and drawings onto stationary or rotating paper on a drum (plotter).

Binary number system- positional number system with base 2. Binary digits 0 and 1 are used to write numbers. For example, in the binary system 101101 2 =1 * 2 5 + 0 * 2 4 + 1 * 2 3 + 1 * 2 2 + 0 * 2 1 + 1 * 2 0 =45 10 . Derived number systems (degree 2) are also known - octal and hexadecimal.

Double precision- numeric data (fixed or floating point), located in two machine words, requires support for special arithmetic operations.

Joystick(from the English joy stick - cheerful stick) - a lever input device designed to control the movement of graphic objects on the display screen, widely used in computer games and training equipment. It is usually made in the form of a handle equipped with buttons, which can be used to make inclined and rotational movements. These movements are converted into control electrical signals proportional to the angles of deviation of the handle from the vertical. By pressing buttons, you can provide some information to the running program or issue some commands.

Digitizer(or digitizer, from the English digitizer - digitizer) - devices for entering graphic data into a computer, based on different technical principles. As a rule, when using any of them, the outline of the image is outlined with a special pen.

Dynamic RAM(Dynamic Random Access Memory - DRAM - dynamic random access memory) - a type of semiconductor RAM. Each binary digit (bit) is stored in a circuit consisting of a transistor and a capacitor. If the capacitor is charged, then this corresponds to 1, a discharged capacitor corresponds to 0. The transistor controls access to the capacitor.

Disk- a data carrier in the form of a round plate on which recording is carried out in different ways. A device that writes (reads) data to/from a disk is called a data drive. Disks differ in the way they write/read data, the ability to replace them, and recording density. According to the method of writing/reading, disks are divided into magnetic, laser (optical), and magneto-optical. Magnetic disks, in turn, are divided into flexible and hard. Often a “disk” refers to several disks combined into a package.

Drive- a device that controls the rotation of a magnetic disk, reading and writing data on it.

Display(monitor) - a device for visually displaying information (in the form of text, table, picture, drawing, etc.) on the screen of a cathode-ray device.

Track- a concentric circle on the magnetic surface of the disk where information is located. Tracks are numbered starting from 0 (track with the largest radius).

Driver(driver) - a resident software module that controls an external device and communicates with the operating system and application programs.

Hard magnetic disk(ZhMD, HDD) - a disk for long-term data storage on computers. Unlike a floppy disk, which is removable, a hard disk is integral with the drive.

Memory device(Memory) - a device for recording, storing and issuing data. There are devices: long-term and operational data storage, they are also non-volatile and volatile; read-only data (read-only memory - ROM, CDs) and both read and write. Depending on the physical principles of data storage, magnetic, magneto-optical, optical and semiconductor (circuit) devices are distinguished.

Star- a method of connecting computers into a network, in which one computer is allocated and called the main one (head), and all the others are connected directly to it. Data can only be transferred from one peripheral computer to another through the host computer. If the main computer fails, the entire network becomes inoperable.

Integrated circuit(IC) - the implementation of an electronic circuit that performs a certain function in the form of a single semiconductor crystal in which all the components necessary to implement this function are manufactured. Includes a set of transistors, diodes, capacitors, resistors and more, interconnected by microconductors. The IC is manufactured using technology that ensures extremely small dimensions and high reliability. Based on the number of elements, ICs are conventionally divided into small (MIS) - with the number of elements in a chip up to 102, medium (SIS) - up to 103, large (LSI) - up to 104, extra-large (VLSI) - up to 106, ultra-large (ULSI) - up to 109 and giga-large (GBIS) - more than 109 elements in a crystal.

Cartridge(English cartrige - cartridge, cassette) - a replaceable part of the device. Typically this is a protective shell that stores ink ribbon for printers, toner for laser printers or duplicating machines, ink for inkjet printers, and other things. The cartridge is completely ready for use; all you have to do is insert it into place.

Kilobyte(KB) - a unit of measurement of the amount of data or memory capacity, equal to 10 3 = 1000 bytes. An alternative is the IEC proposed unit KiB (Kibibyte); 1 KiB=2 10 =1024 bytes. The discrepancy is 2.4%.

Keyboard- a device designed for manually entering data into a computer. Keyboards differ in the number of keys. Standard for IBM-like computers is a keyboard with 101 keys, where the following blocks are highlighted: function keys; letters, numbers and auxiliary symbols; cursor keys; numeric keypad (duplicated for ease of input).

Cluster(from the English cluster - group) - a unit of data storage on floppy and hard disks. A cluster contains several adjacent sectors.

Client(client) - a software and hardware complex that provides an interface with the user (another active party) when sending and receiving requests from the server.

Client server architecture(client-server) - distributed processing of requests on the network, implemented on two interacting software and hardware systems (client and server).

Coaxial cable(from Latin co - together and axis - axis). A cable consisting of two coaxial conductors with an insulator between them. Used in communication channels of computer networks. Used for transmitting signals with a carrier frequency of up to 3 * 10 10 Hz.

ASCII code(from the English American Standard Code for Information Interchange - American Standard Code for Information Interchange) - a standard for encoding characters of the Latin alphabet, numbers and auxiliary characters or actions in the form of a one-byte binary code (1 byte = 8 bits).

Unicode code- standard for representing characters using 16-bit codes (2 bytes). Allows 65,536 characters. The standard should in the future replace ASCII, since it is more convenient to use one code for different languages ​​than to change conversion tables in ASCII code.

Codec(from the English Codec - COmpress-DECompress - compress, restore) - a hardware and software complex that ensures the operation of a personal computer with video information. The codec allows you to achieve the quality of the VCR through the use of hardware and software data compression methods.

Coding(coding) - establishing an agreed (legalized) correspondence between a set of characters and signals or bit combinations representing each character for the purposes of transmitting, storing or processing data.

Amount of information- the following basic units are used for measurement: 1 kilobyte (KB, KB)=1024 bytes=2 10 bytes; 1 megabyte (MB, MB)=1024 KB=2 20 bytes and bytes; 1 yeargabyte (GB, GB)=1024 MB=2 30 bytes ~ bytes. Recently, due to the increase in the volume of processed information, such derived units as 1 terabyte (TB, TV) = 1024 GB = 2 40 bytes ~ a byte have come into use; 1 petabyte (PByte, PB)=1024 TB=2 50 bytes ~ byte; 1 exobyte=10 18 bytes and so on. These are the so-called decimal units. As an alternative, the IEC proposed binary units in 1998: 1 KiB (KibiByte) - 2 10 = 1024 bytes; 1 MiB (MibiByte)=1024 KiB; 1 GiB (GibiByte)=1024 MiB (MibiByte) and so on

Ring- a method of connecting computers into a network, when data on the network is transmitted sequentially from one station to another. As a rule, data is transmitted only in one direction, therefore, in order to transmit a message to a nearby computer, but located opposite the flow of data, you need to go through all the computers on the network.

Team is a binary number that consists of two parts (fields) - the operation code (OPC) and the address part (ADC). The operation code KOP specifies the type of operation performed by this command, and the ADC determines the choice of operands (addressing method) on which the specified operation is performed. Depending on the type of microprocessor, a command may contain a different number of bits (bytes). For example, Pentium processor instructions range from 1 to 15 bytes, and most RISC processors use a fixed 4-byte format for all instructions.

Modem command language(modem AT-command, Hayes AT command) - an element of the command language that controls the operation of a Hayes-compatible modem.

Switching- 1. The process of connecting or switching computing systems, including computers. 2. There is a distinction between message packet switching, which refers to the combination of some data and its transmission over communication channels.

Switched communication channels. General purpose communication channels that are used by a specific network only at the time of communication. In territorial and global computer networks, as a rule, general-purpose telephone channels are used, which are connected (switched) to this network upon call. Switched circuits are low-speed, unlike dedicated circuits.

CD- a disk for permanent data storage, which is a circle made of plastic or aluminum alloy, covered with a protective transparent film. Recording is done along one spiral-shaped, very long track so tightly that up to 700 MB of data can fit on a 5-inch disk. Recording is carried out in stationary conditions on special devices, and then read-only CDs (CD-ROM - Compact Disk Read Only Memory) are pressed for mass consumption.

Composite video(composite video) - video signals in which brightness and color signals are transmitted together (mixed). Home video devices typically use NTSC, PAL, and SECAM signals. The carrier signal Y (luminance signal) and the color signal located in the color strip are superimposed on each other, forming one signal.

Component video(component video) - video signals in which, to improve the quality of image transmission, brightness and color signals are transmitted separately. In high-definition television (HDTV), this refers to images that consist of three independent signals - Y (luminance signal) and Pb and Pr (chrominance signals).

Controller(from the English control - to manage) - a device that connects peripheral equipment or communication channels with the central processor, freeing the processor from direct control of the operation of this equipment. The controller interprets processor commands for individual devices.

Cursor- a luminous area on the display screen indicating the position at which the next character entered from the keyboard will be displayed.

Cache memory- super-RAM, access to which is much faster than operational memory, and in which the most frequently used sections of the latter are stored. When accessing memory, the required data is first looked for in the memory cache. In the absence, the RAM is accessed, as a result, the total memory access time is reduced.

Laptop(laptop, “knee pad”) - a portable computer, similar in size to a briefcase. In terms of performance and memory, it is approximately equivalent to desktop personal computers.

Backbone-modular structure- a common computer structure in which individual devices (modules) included in the system exchange information via a common system bus - a highway.

Magneto-optical storage- drive for working with magneto-optical disks. The magneto-optical disk (MO disk) is made of aluminum alloy and enclosed in a plastic shell. Data recording technology: a laser beam heats a point on the disk, and an electromagnet changes the magnetic orientation of this point depending on what needs to be recorded - “0” or “1”. Reading is performed by a laser beam of lower power (than when writing), which, reflecting from this point, changes its polarity.

Manipulator(from Latin manus - hand) - a device that allows you to control the state of the computer, including entering data using your hands. Manipulators include joystick, mouse, trackball, touchpad, pen, trackpoint, J-key.

Router- an electronic device, sometimes with a software unit, that determines the optimal path (route) of a packet of messages in computer networks.

RAID disk array(from the English Redundant Arrays of Independent / Inexpensive Disks - an array of independent disks with redundancy) - a set of HDDs structurally combined into one unit with a common controller. Typically used in servers to ensure reliability by duplicating data.

Scalability- a property of a system or its individual parts, characterizing the ability of the system to adapt to a decrease or increase in its individual parameters. For example, Windows operating systems have a scalable user interface that provides a consistent look and feel across different display sizes.

Matrix printer- a printer in which the printing unit is a metal plate with holes (matrix) in which pins (needles) move freely. Pins, controlled by a magnet, strike an ink ribbon (the same as on a typewriter), and the dots create a character on the paper.

Machine word(MS) - an ordered set of binary bits used to store program commands and processed data. Each digit, called a bit, is a binary number that can only take the values ​​0 or 1. The bits in an MS are usually numbered from right to left, starting with 0. The number of bits in an MS is called the dimension of the MS or its bit depth. The typical length of the MS is 16 or 32 bits.

Machine language- a set of computer machine commands, distinguished by the number of addresses in the command, the purpose of the information specified in the addresses, the set of operations that the machine can perform, etc.

MDP structure- “metal-dielectric-semiconductor” structure used in the creation of electronic devices, including microprocessors, memory for computers. It is an ordered collection of very thin (less than 1 micron) layers of metal and dielectric deposited on a semiconductor wafer. If oxides (aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide) are used as a dielectric, then a MOS structure (“metal-oxide-semiconductor”) is formed. The method of creating devices based on such structures is called MIS technology or MOS technology.

Megabyte(MB) - a unit of measurement for the amount of data or memory capacity, equal to 10 ⁶=1,000,000 bytes. An alternative is the proposed IEC unit MiB (Mibibyte); 1 MiB=1024 Kibibyte. The discrepancy is more than 4.8%.

Slow connection- Connection via modem (speed from 9600 to 28,800 bps).

Microcommand- an elementary action that ensures the execution of a given operation; the processor control unit generates a sequence of microcommands in accordance with the code of the received command. Each microinstruction is executed within one machine cycle.

Micrometer(µm) - 10 -6 m, 1000 nanometers (nm).

Microprocessor- a device that processes data and controls this process, made in the form of one or several large (ultra-large) integrated circuits. Microprocessors are built into control devices and are the main part of the computer. For example, a BMW car has 54 integrated circuits that control anti-lock brakes and airbags. The microprocessor includes: an arithmetic-logical unit that performs arithmetic and logical operations; control and synchronization unit; input/output block; registers and so on.

Microsecond(ms) - 10 -6 s, 1000 nanoseconds (ns).

Modem(modulator-demodulator, modem) - a device for converting digital information into analog and back through modulation/demodulation of the carrier frequency for data transmission over telephone lines. Discrete (binary) data from the computer enters the modem, where it is encoded accordingly (modulated) and transmitted to the communication line.

MOS structure(“metal-oxide-semiconductor”) - the structure of the material from which transistors, capacitors and other electronic devices are made.

Multimedia- a collective concept for various computer technologies that use several information media, such as graphics, text, video, photography, moving images (animation), sound effects, high-quality sound.

Mouse(mouse, mice) - a manipulator that allows you to select data on the display and enter graphic data. The ball sensor makes the cursor move around the screen, and the buttons act as keys (input) and (exit).

Pulse/tone dialing(dialing pulse/tone) - connection establishment operations over dial-up telephone channels performed by a modem.

Storage device- a device for writing/reading data to/from a specific medium(s). Drives are classified as external storage devices. There are drives on disks (MD, CD), tapes (ML), cards. There are also drives: with removable media (in this case, the data carrier can be replaced, for example, floppy disks, magnetic tapes); with permanent media (in this case, the media is built into the drive and cannot be replaced, for example, a hard magnetic disk).

Nanometer(nm) - 1 nm=10 -9 m=0.001 micrometer (µm).

Nanosecond(ns) - 1 ns=10 -9 s=0.001 microseconds (ms).

Nanotechnology- integrated circuit manufacturing technology, which is based on quantities corresponding to nanometers and nanoseconds. For example, the expression “130 nanometers (or 0.13 microns) technology (process)” means that the dimensions of the structural elements of the microcircuit do not exceed 130 nm.

Hum- unit of brightness (candela per square meter, cd/m 2, cd/m 2).

Laptop(notebook) - a portable computer, similar in size to a large-format book. Fits in a briefcase. Usually equipped with a modem and a CD-ROM drive.

RAM(RAM, same as random access memory, RAM). Designed to store programs and the data they manipulate. Physically implemented in the form of a certain number of microcircuits. Logically, the OP can be represented as a linear collection of cells, each of which has its own number, called an address (or a matrix, the intersection of rows and columns of which determines a specific memory bit).

Open systems interoperability(OSI - Open system Interconnection reference model) - a set of ISO requirements for establishing the interaction of open systems in networks.

Palmtop(palmtop, “handheld”) is the smallest modern personal computer that fits in the palm of your hand. Magnetic disks are replaced by non-volatile electronic memory; information is exchanged with conventional computers via communication lines.

Device ports- electronic circuits containing one or more input-output registers and allowing you to connect computer peripheral devices to external buses of the microprocessor. The serial port exchanges data with the processor byte by byte, and with external devices - bit by bit. The parallel port receives and sends data byte by byte.

Read Only Memory(ROM). Used to store constants and standard (immutable) programs. ROM usually stores initialization (boot) programs for systems, test and diagnostic programs, and other service software that does not change during system operation.

Primitive(from the English primitive - primary, simple, basic) - one of the simplest elements that form vector images. Basic primitives are geometric objects such as points and line segments.

Printer- a printing device that converts the encoded information coming out of the processor into a form convenient for reading on paper.

Progressive scan(progressive scanning) - a method of scanning an image in which image data is scanned sequentially from top to bottom, rather than across a line, as occurs with interlaced scanning.

Translucent screen(transparent screen) - a screen used for rear projection. Translucent screens play a role opposite to reflective screens. If the purpose of the latter is to reflect the maximum amount of light, then the task of translucent screens is to transmit all the light without delaying it. Translucent screens have a glass or acrylic base.

Communication protocol- an agreed set of specific rules for the exchange of information between different data transfer devices. There are protocols for transmission speed, data formats, error control and more

CPU- a central device of a computer designed to control the operation of a computer according to a given program. The capabilities of a computer as a universal performer for working with information are determined by the processor command system. This command system is a machine command language (MCL). A separate command defines a separate operation (action) of the computer.

Display (projector) resolution- the physical number of elements (pixels, pixel - picture element) in the columns and rows of the image. There are standard resolution types - VGA (640 x 480), SVGA (800 x 600), XGA (1024 x 768), SXGA (1200 x 1024), UXGA (1600 x 1200), QXGA (2048 x 1536).

Register- a storage element of the processor that performs the functions of short-term storage of numbers or commands and performing certain operations on them.

Command register- register CU for storing the command code for the period of time necessary for its execution.

Status register SR (State Register, called EFLAGS on Pentium microprocessors). Determines the current state of the processor when the program is running. The register contains control bits that specify the operating mode of the processor, and attribute bits (flags) that indicate the characteristics of the result of the performed operation.

Sector- each track located on the disk is divided into sectors (blocks). For MS DOS, each sector is 512 bytes in size.

Server(server) - a network computer on which resources available to clients are located. Server resources can be files, printers, or application servers (such as multi-user databases).

Computer network- a set of computers connected via communication channels and switching means into a single system for messaging and user access to software, technical, information and organizational resources of the network. According to the degree of geographical distribution, networks are divided into local, city, corporate, global and others. A local network (LAN) connects a number of computers in an area limited by the boundaries of one room, building or enterprise. A wide area network (WAN) connects computers located geographically at great distances from each other. It differs from a local network in more extensive communications (satellite, cable, etc.). The urban network serves the information needs of a large city.

Data network(data transfer network) - a complex of communication equipment and control computers that provides data transfer for various applications.

Command system. Processors execute a set of commands that implement the following main groups of operations: transfers; arithmetic; brain teaser; shift; comparisons and testing; bit operations; program management; processor control.

Notation- a set of rules for naming and representing numbers using a set of symbols called numbers. Number systems are divided into positional and non-positional. An example of a non-positional number system is Roman; positional number systems include binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal.

System bus contains several dozen (in complex systems more than 100) conductors (lines), which, in accordance with their functional purpose, are divided into separate buses - address A, data D and control C.

Scanner- a device for entering documents into a computer - texts, drawings, graphs, drawings, photographs. Creates a digitized image of a document and places it in computer memory.

Standard machine word- a machine word, the dimension of which coincides with the processor bit capacity. Most processor instructions use standard machine words to process data.

Stack- a set of memory cells that are not available in random order, but only in a stack (“magazine”): LIFO - “last in, first out,” like cartridges in the clip (magazine) of a rifle (machine gun), for example, an environment for storing data for returns from subroutines, as well as their arguments.

Superparamagnetic effect- a state in which the magnetic domains in a magnetized material (as well as the spaces between them) are so small that their magnetic orientation can easily change under the influence of the thermal movement of molecules.

Superscalar processor structure. Provides increased processor performance by introducing several parallel operating devices into the processor structure, ensuring the simultaneous execution of several operations. In such processors, parallel operation of several execution pipelines is implemented, each of which receives one of the selected and decoded instructions for execution.

Command address counter(SchAK), command address register (PAK), program counter, Program Counter (PC), in x86 - Instruction Pointer (IP) - a processor register that is used to store the address of the next command and the contents of which are automatically increased by 1 after fetching the next command .

Terabyte(TB) - a unit of data amount equal to 1000 GB. As an alternative, the IEC proposed TiB (TibiByte) in 1998; 1 TiB=1024 GiB (GibiByte).

Terminal(terminal) - terminal device, a combination of data input and output devices in a computer.

Data type- form of data presentation, which is characterized by the way data is organized in memory; set of valid values; a set of operations. In other words, a data type is a scheme for a certain type of variable embedded in the translator. The integer data type (int, fixed, etc.) specifies the properties of an entire variable - it can only take integer values ​​in a certain range, depending on the processor bit depth, for example, -32,767 ... +32,767. REAL data type (double, FLOAT, etc. ) specifies the properties of a floating point variable.

Computer network topology- the logical and physical way of connecting computers, cables and other components that make up a network. Topology characterizes the properties of networks that do not depend on their size. This does not take into account the performance and operating principle of these objects, their types, and channel lengths, although these factors are very important when designing.

Trackball- cursor control device. A small box with a ball built into the top of its body. The user rotates the ball with his hand and moves the cursor accordingly.

Control device(CU) - part of the processor that performs the functions of controlling computer devices.

File(file) is a named, organized set of data of a certain type and purpose, under the control of the operating system. This is a set of information, homogeneous in its composition and purpose, stored on a storage medium and having a name.

File system(file management system) is a dynamically maintained information structure on direct access devices (disks) that provides the function of managing data from operating systems through name-address communication.

Fixed point(fixed) - the simplest type of numeric data, when the number is placed in a machine word, and the range of values ​​​​depends only on the bit depth of the word.

Floppy Disk(floppy disk) - a removable flexible magnetic disk.

Host machine(host computer) - the main computer (online or offline) that supports information and computing resources and provides them to remote users.

Color difference signal(color differential signal) - signal transmission via three cables - Red-Bright (bright red, R-Y), Bright (bright, Y) and Blue-Bright (bright blue, B-Y). This allows composite signals to be projected more clearly (RGB and their luminance signals are carried over a single cable).

Cylinder- combining tracks with the same number located on different surfaces of the disk (for a floppy disk, a cylinder means two tracks).

Regeneration frequency(refresh rate). The luminous display element can maintain the same brightness and color for a very short time. Therefore, the image must be refreshed periodically, and the number of such cycles per second is called the “refresh rate” and is expressed in Hertz (Hz).

Interlace scanning(interlaced scanning) - a scanning method in which image data is divided into horizontal lines that are reproduced sequentially from left to right and from top to bottom across the screen. Even and odd lines are played alternately.

Floating point numbers(float) - a numeric data placed in a machine word in the form of a mantissa and order, which allows you to represent a wide range of values; assumes the presence of built-in or emulated arithmetic (floating point operations).

Sensitive screen. Allows you to communicate with the computer by touching your finger to a specific place on the monitor screen.

Tire(bus) - a device capable of controlling at least one other device. Adapter boards are connected to the bus. From the point of view of the Plug & Play subsystem, a bus is any device capable of providing resources.

Hey there, everyone! In this rather long article, we will touch on the extremely relevant field of IT and show you the definitions of popular (and not so popular) computer and technical terms. You were waiting for such an article, weren't you?

To look decent when communicating with knowledgeable people on the Internet or “just be on topic” at a programming party, you better know what they are talking about. With our article on terms, everything mysterious will become clear and understandable!

Since the second half of the 20th century, the rapid growth of computer technology, and the mass introduction of personal computers and computer devices into everyday life in the mid-80s, introduced a huge number of special words and expressions into the Russian language. Thanks to the start of publication in 1988 of the PC World magazine, which became very popular, a “collapse” occurred: English-language terms and abbreviations, often in English spelling, filled the pages of magazines and “clogged” the speech of specialists.

Today, these words are used by people in highly paid positions, and many terms are also used among people not involved in the field of information technology. Who knows how your life will turn out in the future? Know them too!

Are you ready for some serious longread? Then let's get to it!

Top 5 IT terms from EnglishDom

User-centered design (user-centered design)

It is a term used to discuss processes that take user characteristics, habits, or preferences into account in product design. When people design a product based on the user's needs, rather than forcing the user to conform to the design.

Some of the confusion around user-centered design stems, perhaps from the more popular term "user experience" (UX). The term has become quite popular in the IT field when talking about ways for the user to improve the software or other products being tested.

Many people believe that user-centered design and user interface are interchangeable terms. Others point out that the former is more of a concept plan, and the user experience (improved or customizable) is the result. However, IT professionals still use “user interface” as a process term, which can create ambiguity.

User-centered design can be applied to any product, but in the IT industry, much emphasis is placed on intuitive graphical user interfaces and other tools that are user friendly for end users.

Blockchain(blockchain)

A digital way of storing information that allows different people to always know what exactly is stored, when, who and what information was changed, moved or added.

The term blockchain has become a household word due to the emergence of cryptocurrencies (digital or virtual currency designed to act as a medium of exchange using cryptography to facilitate transactions), a new type of money whose earnings and movement are organized precisely according to the blockchain principle.

We can say that the information stored using blockchain technology is something like a logbook that cannot be stolen, burned, hidden, or damaged. And even more so, you cannot secretly erase anything in it, or change any information bypassing the log.

The word "blockchain" literally means "chain of blocks". Any change in information in the blockchain will result in the creation of a new block(or entries in the logbook), which tightly “clings” to the previous links. And each link, once created, cannot be changed.

Information systems for all kinds of purposes can exist in the form of a blockchain. If this is, for example, a real estate register, then without any restrictions it will be possible to find out the history of ownership of any object included in the register. In this case, nothing can be done retroactively, and any attempts to change records will be transparent to everyone.

An important property of information stored using the blockchain principle is that it not stored somewhere in one specific place, but in fragments or completely placed on the computers of a large number of people, duplicated many times. That is, information in the blockchain cannot be taken and deleted: one, ten or a hundred disconnected computers with fragments of the blockchain will not affect the availability of information. If anywhere manuscripts don’t burn, it’s on the blockchain.

Folksonomy (folksonomy)

Type of object classification. This is something like manual sorting of information, which is carried out jointly by a group of people. As a rule, we are talking about classifying something on the Internet - it is more convenient there. For example: lovers of children's literature create, say, a collection of children's e-books on the Internet. Then they mark the books they know with some marks (tags). Each to their own.

More often, the set of tags is discussed in advance, and you cannot go beyond it. For example, in our case, these could be tags: “for children”, “classics”, “no pictures”, “boring”, “bad translation”, “Agniya Barto”, “poems”, “unreadable”, “adventures” " etc.

A popular site that uses folksonomy is the photo hosting site Flickr. Here users upload their photos by tagging them. Each photo can be tagged by anyone who has registered on the site.

Sooner or later, if the community is active, almost every book will receive several of the same tags, set by different people. This means: several people find this book to satisfy these particular tags. All members of the community can rely on them when choosing something for their offspring.

Artificial neural network (ANN)

This is an artificial analogue of a biological neural network, which allows you to automate the solution of many problems. Most of the achievements of artificial intelligence today are associated with artificial neural networks.

The first simple artificial neural network appeared in 1960. A century later, will the progress of such networks lead to the emergence of merciless terminators? Only John Connor knows this.

In essence, an artificial neural network is a special type of computer program, and such a program runs on one or more computers, respectively.

The most interesting property of an artificial neural network is its learning ability. If the task of the program is to distinguish women from men in photographs, then through an artificial neural network you need to “pass” as many different images as possible, suggesting the correct answer.

In the process of such “training”, increasingly accurate algorithms for determining a person’s gender from his image are formed within the neural network - this happens in a semi-automatic mode, the network learns from its mistakes.

Autoencoder (autoencoder, AE)

It is a special type of unsupervised artificial neural network that provides compression and other machine learning features.

The simplest architecture of an autoencoder is a feed-forward network, without feedback, containing an input layer, an intermediate layer, and an output layer. The main principle of operation and training of the autoencoder network is to obtain a response at the output layer that is closest to the input.

Technical terms

• API— application programming interface. In simple words: connectors on the back of the TV.

When a device from another manufacturer (for example, a DVD player or game console) is connected to the TV, both of them “know” what to do next. And all thanks to connectors - the interface, that is, the means of pairing devices.

• Access Control List - access control list. Or “party guest list.”

The owner is not interested in the invitations he brought with him. He posts a list on the door and personally checks who is allowed in. No matter how much you would like to get inside, you won’t be able to persuade him (and you won’t be able to take advantage of someone else’s invitation either).

In complex words: the part of a security descriptor that lists who has access to an object and what kind of access it has. The owner of an object can change the ACL of that object to allow or deny access to it by other users. An ACL consists of a header and an arbitrary number of ACL elements (ACEs). An ACL without an ACE is called a null ACL and indicates that no user is allowed access to the object.

• AdBlock- a program that blocks advertising modules, ad blocking. Or “damage to outdoor advertising.”

It’s quite understandable to be outraged by the littering of public places, isn’t it? But, if the advertisement is privately owned, then it won’t take long for it to fall under the article.

• Agile Software Development— flexible software development (focused on ease of making changes) or rapid software development (adaptive development).

It's like finishing up a ship on a voyage. That is, it is already possible to float on the water: there is a hull, or even a mast. And the ship is not completed, but is immediately lowered from the slipways and completed during the voyage. This way you immediately find out what is most important and what you need to focus on.

• Back End— server application (part) or software for performing the final stage of the process.

It's like an underground part of the city. At the top, everything is normal: HTML buildings, CSS cathedrals, Javascript office blocks. And underground is what allows the city to function properly: an intricate network of web servers, applications and databases. Software for solving a problem that is not obvious to the user.

• Backdoor- loophole. That is, a tool (way) to bypass the security system. Or just a backdoor.

This is when, for example, a builder made a duplicate key to your door. Even the most secure locks will not prevent him from entering. Or maybe give the key to someone else.

• Bandwidth— bandwidth, frequency range; bandwidth (for example, a communication channel).

For example, the rear channel of the Dolby Surround system has a frequency range of 100 Hz - 7 kHz. This channel passes frequencies from 1-10 Hz (low frequencies) to 7 kHz (lower high frequencies).

The frequency range perceived by human hearing is between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. The limits of the frequency range of electronic or acoustic devices are considered to be frequencies at which the transmission coefficient decreases by 3 dB.

Imagine a water supply pipe through which water is supplied to the shower, dishwasher and washing machine. Turn on all three at the same time and the pressure will immediately drop. And a couple of strong words will come from the shower.

• Big Data- big data. A series of approaches, tools and methods for processing and analyzing structured, semi-structured and unstructured data of huge volumes and significant diversity to obtain practical, human-readable results.

Mapping an unfamiliar area. It's hard to understand what's what when you're pushing through bushes or wandering through gorges. But armed with the right tool (a balloon), you can see the entire landscape at once and analyze individual elements, for example, the shape of a mountain range or a winding river bed.

• Bug- error in the program.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa, which stood straight for the first five years, as expected, and then began to lean. Why? There was a design error! There was quicksand under the three-meter foundation. It’s a pity that tourists don’t get caught by software errors.

• Cookie is a cookie that is used by web servers to distinguish users and store data about them.

It's like a barista with a good memory. You come early in the morning for a double soy decaf latte with cream, and he nods boredly: “As usual?”

• DDoS Attack— distributed network denial of service attack.

When 200 people dial one number. A regular network attack (DoS attack) is a type that constantly calls. It is annoying and interferes with the use of the phone, but one person can be tracked down and stopped.

But if an anonymous person puts an ad in the newspaper “Bugatti Chiron for $200” with your number, this is already a distributed attack. In this case, a barrage of calls hits you, and your life turns into hell. Callers do not even suspect that they are being used, and it is almost impossible to track down the organizer.

• Dark Web- dark Internet - a segment of the World Wide Web, which can only be accessed with the help of special software, maintaining complete anonymity there, in order to purchase and sell illegal goods (for example, weapons or drugs) and services, and covert exchange of information.

Actually, the other side of the Moon. Everyone can see the bright side (the regular Internet) - just use the search. To access the dark side you need special (dark) software (rocket).

• Data Bleed- data leakage. The term is gradually gaining popularity, but it is still difficult to clearly describe as there is no precise definition on the Internet yet.

In general, data breaches occur when there is no transparency in the use of data or when data is shared without the user's express permission.

• De-identification— de-identification, removal of personal data (identification information) .

Phrases like “senior official” and “source close to the president” are often used by journalists to de-identify their sources.

There is useful information in their words (after all, the credibility of the report depends on where the information comes from), but the specific person will remain unknown. If, of course, you choose your words carefully.

• Doxing- doxxing, collection and distribution, disclosure, publication, publication of someone’s personal data on the Internet without the consent of that person.

Lynching as a way to take justice into your own hands to punish the guilty. But lynching sometimes backfires if the wrong person becomes the victim or the consequences go too far.

• Encryption- encryption, secrecy. Tradition of wearing clothes.

It would never occur to anyone to accuse a dressed person of hiding something (you can try, but they are unlikely to understand). Everyone knows that this is how it is accepted in a civilized society.

The same applies to encryption of various basic transactions on the Internet - from banking and trading to sending personal information.

Without strong encryption, the Internet is broken. The question is how to integrate encryption strength requirements with national security and law enforcement concerns - see Backdoor.

• Front End - the interface part of the client-server application (client component).

It's like walking around the city. The interface is available to us: sidewalks, roads, shops, parks, business districts. But the server part, responsible for the life support of the city, remains hidden from view: power supply lines, gas pipelines, sewers, building foundations are underground.

• Least Mean Square (LMS) — minimum mean square error algorithm.

This is a type of filter used in machine processes that uses stochastic gradient descent in complex ways — professionals describe it as an adaptive filter that helps perform signal processing in various ways.

• OAuth— OAuth authorization protocol.

It's like hiring a gardener for a second home in Spain. In the absence of the owners, a reliable housekeeper with keys looks after the house. That’s why they don’t give the gardener a key: the housekeeper herself will let him in and show him where the shed is. Now, by the next visit, both the house and the garden will be well-groomed - life is wonderful.

• Open Source- open source.

The principle is that the source code of the system being developed should be freely and freely available to anyone who wants to improve it. The resulting improvements should also be available to everyone for free. Like a cake baked for a friend with a recipe for it.

The cake is a program (only tastier), and the transmitted recipe is open source. Your friend will not only treat himself to something delicious, but will be able to make another cake himself: for himself or for a friend’s birthday. It is possible, of course, that instead of butter he will take peanut butter (this is such an original).

• Spam- spam, “junk” message.

An infinite number of monkeys locked in a room with an infinite number of typewriters and eventually spitting out the works of Shakespeare.

To increase the chances of success, more and more spam is sent. Millions filter it, delete it, ignore it, but one answer is enough to make the game worth the candle.

• Spoofing— spoofing fraud (fraud aimed at obtaining confidential banking data of clients for the purpose of stealing money, usually using computer technology, by simulating a real-life banking website or posting it on a fake website. Accordingly, information from the client is sent to a fake website.

In simple words: simulating a connection. Someone disguised as a police officer to obtain confidential information, the IP address in “spoofing” is disguised as a trusted node. In reality, everything is not so, which is fraught with problems.

• Spyware- spyware. Spyware designed to monitor user actions on a computer. Intercepts his email correspondence, information he enters, passwords and commands. Like hidden microphones.

Once installed, spyware tracks every keystroke, recording passwords, bank details and the translation of the poem you're poring over.

• TOR (The Onion Router) - free software for implementing the second generation of so-called “onion or multilayer routing”.

This is a system that allows you to establish an anonymous network connection that is protected from eavesdropping. It is considered as an anonymous network that provides data transmission in encrypted form. Like Ray-Ban Wayfarer glasses for the browser. No one sees what exactly their owner is looking at. They look stylish and mysterious.

• Trojan- Trojan program. Chalice of poison. The motif of the poisoned cup first appears in Shakespeare's Macbeth - a gift that seems flattering, but ultimately turns out to be destructive. Act 1, scene 7.
• Troll- troll, provocateur (on forums or in chats); troll is the author of defiant and provocative messages. Playing chess with a pigeon.

No matter how you play chess, he will scatter all the pieces, crap on the board and fly off to tell you how he killed everyone.

• Virus- virus. Venereal disease. Sorry for this comparison, but viruses are picked up when a computer comes into contact with the Internet without protection.
• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)— protected access via Wi-Fi. The President's Motorcycle Escort is a bulletproof vehicle accompanied by motorcyclists. Delivered securely from your device to your internet connection. But upon arrival, additional security will not hurt.
• White Hat- white hat hacker, fanatical programmer or ethical hacker. Positive character. This is a computer security specialist who specializes in testing the security of computer systems.

Unlike black hat (or black hat) hackers, white hat hackers search for vulnerabilities on a voluntary basis or for a fee in order to help developers make their product more secure.

The term originates in old Westerns (black hat - villain, scoundrel, black hacker), where the right heroes and villains followed a comfortable monochrome dress code.

• Wiki— Wiki is a hypertext environment (usually a website) for collecting and structuring written information. May have many authors. Some wikis can be edited by all visitors. Like a hotel guest book.

• Zero-day— zero-day vulnerability — malicious programs (exploits) against which protective mechanisms have not yet been developed.

"Naked king" in chess. There is nothing left but to start building a defense in the hope that the opponent has not noticed anything. Although it is possible that he has been in the know for a long time and has been just having fun for the last five moves. Checkmate.

Computer terms

• AJAX is an approach to building interactive web pages that involves the browser communicating with a web server in the background.

Thus, the current page is not completely reloaded, only the changed objects are updated. The result is greater convenience and speed of web applications.

• ADSL— asymmetric digital subscriber line is a new technology that allows you to use existing subscriber telephone lines for high-speed transmission and reception of data between subscriber computers.

It is called asymmetric because the speed of data reception by the subscriber is several times greater than the speed of data transmitted by it

• Active Directory is an implementation of the Microsoft directory service for Windows that allows administrators to implement sets of rules that ensure consistency in setting up the user environment, deploying software to a huge number of computers, installing updates on all computers on the network, etc.

Active Directory stores data and environment settings in a centralized database and its networks can reach millions of objects.

• CSS(Cascading Style Sheets) - cascading style sheets, a separate code that expands the design and formatting capabilities of a web page.

CSS properties are in addition to the main HTML markup. A given rule can apply to individual page elements, the entire document, and the entire site.

• DNS(Domain Name System) is a system (database) capable of reporting an IP address upon a request containing the domain name of a host (computer or other network device).

To put it simply, each computer on the network has its own unique address - this is a series of numbers (up to 12). If you want to write a letter, dial the mail server number and go ahead. But, you see, remembering the name “mail.ru” is easier than, for example, 164.295.790.024.

Type “mail.ru”, your computer will knock on the “DNS” server, and to the question “How to get to mail.ru?” will receive the exact digital address. Connect at the address (of course without your participation), and you are there. It looks like an ordinary address desk. Only it is not people who use it, but their computers.

• Doctype— document type — “DTD” (document type definition, description of the document type).

This is necessary so that the browser understands how to interpret the current web page, because “HTML” exists in several versions, in addition, there is XHTML (Extensible Hypertext Markup Language), similar to “HTML”, but differing from it in syntax.

So that the browser “does not get confused” and understands according to which standard to display the web page, it is necessary to set in the first line of code .

• Delphi is an object-oriented programming environment based on the Object Pascal language.

Used for software development and support. Unlike its progenitor, the Pascal language, it is multifunctional and convenient in that it has a visual application editor that allows you to create the appearance of the future program.

• DMZ is a technology that ensures the security of a computer network. Its essence is that servers working with external network requests are located in a “demilitarized zone” - “DMZ”.

These servers are limited in access to the main network by a firewall, while working with the external network directly is impossible

• EDGE is an “advanced GPRS”, a data transfer protocol used in GSM networks of cellular operators; the technology allows you to access the Internet at a speed up to 3-4 times higher than when using GPRS, and transfer data from a mobile phone at an average speed of about 236 kbit/s.

“EDGE”, like “GPRS”, allows the subscriber to pay only for the volume of received/sent information; the technology also allows you to make and receive calls during data transfer, staying always in touch; To use EDGE you need a mobile phone that supports this technology.

• ERP-system(Enterprise Resource Planning System) is an information system that is designed to automate accounting and management in an enterprise.

Typically, ERP systems are developed on a module basis and cover the entire set of key processes of the company. Their use allows several disparate programs to be replaced by one integrated one.

• Excel is a program included in the Windows Office suite of programs, one of the most popular among users.

It is a spreadsheet, used for maintaining small databases; calculations; arranging, sorting and linking information; creating charts and graphs.

The program is easy to use; for more experienced users, it opens up the possibility of using complex formulas, analysis, and programming.

• FTP- this is, translated from English, a file transfer protocol. It is one of the basic protocols designed for information exchange.

The fundamental difference between the FTP protocol and HTTP is that FTP is designed for transferring files of arbitrary size.

Transferring files from the server file system to the client file system and vice versa is carried out using a special program - an FTP client.

• Flash is an invention for creating interactive content in web animation technology from Macromedia. It is used to create interactive website elements, web games, as well as to create banners and animated screensavers.

Flash files are compact but labor intensive to create. Only experienced flash programmers can do this. To view Flash files you need a Flash player.

• Firefox is the world's first open source browser. "Fire Fox" has a high level of security.

• Firewall is a software package designed to protect a computer from unauthorized access.

The functions of the “wall of fire” include monitoring and separating network packets passing through it, filtering out suspicious and dangerous ones, in accordance with specified rules. Sometimes similar functions are assigned to hardware protection.

• Firewire is a high-speed serial bus that provides high-speed data exchange between a computer and various peripheral devices.

In particular, it is used when capturing video and audio streams from digital video cameras.

Allows you to connect the above-mentioned devices without turning off the power supply to the latter (the so-called “hot plug”).

• FreeBSD is a UNIX-like operating system, a descendant of UNIX, distributed in source code. FreeBSD is one of the best OS for building Internet and intranet servers.

FreeBSD features reliable network services, efficient memory management, and stability. Compared to other operating systems, FreeBSD servers have the longest uptime.

• FAQ(Frequently Asked Questions) - answers to popular questions.

“FAQ” is a section in help, help for programs, or online services, containing typical user questions and answers to them. If the program or service is quite simple or completely new, then the “FAQ” can completely replace the help.

• GPS is a global navigation and positioning system used in Europe and America.

The basic idea is that the location is determined relative to several satellites, the orbits of which, and therefore the exact location, are known.

Each satellite of the GPS system transmits certain signals, the decoding of which is carried out in the receiving device.

• Host is a powerful server (communication hub) for hosting sites on the World Wide Web, which is used to transfer any files or electronic mail messages.

Host computer is a server installed on Internet nodes that resolves all issues regarding communication and access to various network resources: modems, other computers.

• HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol) is a data transfer protocol on the Internet. Hypertext Transfer Protocol.

There are clients that send requests to the server, and the server, which processes the incoming requests, responds to them. Today, “http” is one of the most common Internet protocols.

• HDMI(High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is an interface for high-definition multimedia, designed to transmit a high-definition signal to a video device, that is, a TV, monitor, projector, etc.

Sound is connected via 5.1 or 7.1 channels. The HDMI connector allows you to connect multiple devices using appropriate cables.

• DPI- (Dot Per Inch - number of dots per inch). Determines the image resolution by the number of dots (pixels). The higher the number of dots, the better the picture quality.

Most often, values ​​from 300 to 1440 are used for various types of images.

• Cluster is a combination of homogeneous units into a system. In this case, this system can be considered an independent element with certain properties.

The concept of a cluster is included in many fields of science - chemistry, physics, sociology, astronomy, etc. In computer science, there are concepts of a cluster as a unit of information storage, a computer cluster, a server cluster and a database cluster.

• Screenshot- using the “Print Screen” key you can take a “snapshot” of what is currently on your computer screen. Next, by opening a graphic editor, you can insert a “snapshot” there and save it as a picture.
• Usability- ease of use of something. Evaluation of the interface, service, control buttons, navigation from the point of view of human comfort. For example, our portal was created according to usability principles - we try to make it easy and convenient for you to navigate here.
• Pathname— the full name of the file or the full path to the element (represents a link to the element located in the package, the name of which is specified by the path prefix).

Conclusion

You may already be familiar with many of these terms, or you may have used some of them incorrectly. Or maybe you have discovered a whole world for yourself? Be that as it may, now you are aware and can safely go to hacker parties, try to get a job in a good IT company and amaze everyone with your knowledge!

Keep the good English rolling!

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